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CfiEXRIGHT DEPOSIT, 



EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT 



JOINT COMMITTEE ON RURAL 
SCHOOLS 

State Grange 

G. W. DUNN MRS. F. GATES 

G. C. McNINCH 

Department of Education 

F. B. GILBERT R. P. SNYDER 

G. M. WILEY 

Dairymen's League 

E. R. EASTMAN, Secretary ALBERT MANNING 

N. F. WEBB 



Farm Bureau Federation 
H. c. Mckenzie, vice-chairman w. g. Mcintosh 

C. S. POST H. G. REED 



State College of Agriculture 

J. E. BUTTERWORTH P. J. KRUSE 

G. A. WORKS, Chairman 
Home Bureau Federation 

MRS. M. E. ARMSTRONG MRS. A. E. BRIGDEN 

MRS. EDWARD YOUNG 

State Teachers' Association 

J. D. JONES MYRTLE E. MacDONALD 

W. E. PIERCE 



Committee on Direction 

G. A. WORKS, Director 

MRS. A. E. BRIGDEN, Assistant Director 

G. M. WILEY, Assistant Director 



RURAL SCHOOL SURVEY 
of NEW YORK STATE 

EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT 



By 
M. E. HAGGERTY, Ph.D. 

DEAN OF THE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 



Ithaca, New York 
1922 



- 



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X 



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Copyright, 1922, by 
M. E. Haggerty, Ph.D. 



WM • F. FELL CO. PRINTERS 
PHILADELPHIA 



©C1A6890.07 



FOREWORD 

THE report of this section of the survey is distinctive for the 
following reasons: 
It furnishes an excellent illustration of the value of standard- 
ized tests in the study of schools. The facts that have been secured 
with reference to the reading situation in the rural schools of the 
State should be invaluable to administrative and supervisory 
officers and they should also arouse teachers and patrons to the 
need of securing more adequate results from the work of the schools 
in this subject. Reading is of basic importance. Not only does it 
condition progress in other school subjects, but deficiency in it may 
be a barrier to the intelligent discharge of the duties of citizenship. 
The elementary school has no more important subject to offer the 
children and the results should be better than are now being ob- 
tained. 

The use of the intelligence and standardized tests with such large 
numbers of pupils through so many grades, and in all sections of the 
State, should furnish valuable data for those who are interested in 
the relative effectiveness of rural and urban schools. 

The survey of the rural schools of New York State and the print- 
ing of this report were made possible through a grant from the 
Commonwealth Fund. 

Geo. A. Works, Director 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAP. 



PAGE 



I. Introduction 13 

Scope of Examinations 14 

Schools Examined 14 

Pupils Examined 14 

Tests Used 14 

Field Work 16 

Examiners' Guide 16 

Training Schools 16 

Scoring, Tabulation, and Interpretation 17 

Acknowledgments 1 ' 

II. Results and Recommendations 19 

Reading Achievements 19 

Measures of Ability 20 

Grouping of Pupils 20 

School Progress 21 

School Organization ._ 21 

Intelligence and Achievement 21 

American History 22 

Spelling 22 

Arithmetic 22 

Algebra 23 

Latin 23 

The Larger School Unit 23 

Recommendations 24 

III. Reading 29 

The Problem of Illiteracy 29 

Near-illiteracy and the Army Examinations 30 

Reading English Prose 32 

Statistical Characteristics of the Examination 35 

Analysis of Scores 37 

Smaller Schools 44 

Elimination in Smaller Schools 46 

How Well Should Children Read. 51 

Reading Achievement of High School Students 54 

Primary Reading 60 

Reading Test Sigma 1 60 

Primary Reading Results 62 

Reading Achievement by Ages 69 

Reading and Intelligence 75 

Recommendations '6 

3 



CHAP. PAGE 

IV. Measures of Ability 78 

Haggerty Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 80 

Validity of Test 80 

Correlations 81 

Stenquist's Findings 85 

Miller Mental Ability Test 86, 93 

Study by Franzen 87 

Gates' Study 87 

Age Norms in Delta 2 89 

Correlations for Reading Examination, Sigma 3 97 

Relations Among the Three Examinations 98 

V. Grouping of Pupils 101 

General Considerations 101 

Cautions in Interpretation of Test Data 102 

Distribution of Scores in Delta 2 Examination 103 

Overlapping Ill 

Distributions in Miller Test 115 

Intelligence and Reading Scores Combined 119 

An Individual School 124 

VI. School Progress 129 

Progress in Mental and Chronological Ages 129 

Spread of Mental and Chronological Ages 134 

Retardation of Superior Students 134 

Items in Further Diagnosis 137 

Unwarranted Acceleration 138 

The One-Teacher Schools 139 

Miller Age Scores 140 

Intelligence and Reading Combined 143 

VII. School Organization 146 

Meaning of Grade Designation 146 

Variation in Grade Intelligence 147 

New York and Minnesota 148 

Basic Elements in Objective Standardization 151 

Objective Standards not Necessarily Uniformity 153 

Special Classes 154 

VIII. Intelligence and Achievement 156 

Delta 2 Rating and Total Achievement 156 

Reading and Achievement in Other Subjects 159 

Intelligence and Reading Combined 160 

A Finer Measure of Achievement 162 

Intelligence Quotients 162 

Reading Quotients 163 

Educational Quotients 165 

IX. American History 170 

State Syllabus . - 170 

History Tests — Information 171 

Thought Questions 172 

Quality of Tests 173 

History Tests and Regents Examinations 174 

History, Reading, and Intelligence Tests 174 

Results of the Tests 175 

The Information Test 176 

The Thought Test 178 

4 



CHAP. PAGE 

X. Spelling 181 

Test Used 181 

Breed's Description 181 

Results 184 

Distributions for Grades 4, 6 and 8 185 

One- and Four-Teacher Schools 186 

Age Data 188 

XL Arithmetic 189 

The State Syllabus 189 

The Tests 191 

Results . 193 

Distributions: Median Scores, Addition, Multiplication, Large and 

Small Schools 193 

Arithmetical Reasoning 196 

XII. Algebra 198 

Hotz's Tests 198 

Equation and Formula 198 

State Syllabus 199 

Addition and Subtraction 199 

Results for "8 Months" Group 203 

XIII. Latin 204 

State Syllabus 204 

Vocabulary and Sentence Reading 204 

Henmon Tests 205 

Results of Vocabulary Tests 205 

Results of the Sentence Test 208 

XIV. Larger School Units 210 

One and Four-teacher Schools 210 

Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 210 

Reading Examination, Sigma 3 215 

Combined Scores 216 

Achievement Scores 217 

Confirming Evidence 218 

Primary Grades 219 

High Schools 220 

Evidence from Other States 221 

Causes of Superiority of Larger Schools 222 



LIST OF DIAGRAMS 

FIGURE PAGE 

1. Map of New York State showing by shaded areas the supervisoiy dis- 

tricts in which tests were given 14 

2. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. All schools — grades 5-12. 

6290 pupils. Surface of frequency. Showing percentage of pupils 
making each score 36 

3. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. Four- teacher elementary 

schools. Grades 5-8. Percentile graph 39 

4. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. One-teacher elementary 

schools. Grades 5-8. Percentile graph 43 

5. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. One-teacher elementary 

schools. Grade 8; and four-teacher elementary schools. Grade 7. 
Percentile graph 46 

6. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. One- teacher elementary 

schools. Grade 8; and four- teacher elementary schools. Grade 8. 
Percentile graph 47 

7. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. One- and four-teacher ele- 

mentary schools. Grades 5-8. Median scores by grades 48 

8. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. Large high schools. Grades 

9-12. Percentile graph 55 

9. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. Small high schools. Grades 

9-12. Percentile graph 57 

10. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. Fewer than four-teacher and 

four or more teacher schools. Grades 9-12. Median scores by grades 59 

11. Reading examination. Sigma 1. One- and four-teacher schools in all 

counties. Grades 1-4. Median scores by grades 64 

12. Reading examination, Sigma 1. Four-teacher schools. Grades 1-4. 

Percentile graph 66 

13. Reading examination. Sigma 1. One-teacher schools. Grades 1-4. 

Percentile graph 68 

14. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. One- and four-teacher schools. 

Grades 5-8. Median scores by ages 72 

15. Reading examination. Sigma 1. Median age scores for pupils in one- 

and four- teacher schools 75 

16. Correlation graph, showing relationship of scores in general intelligence 

examination Delta 2 and criterion 82 

17. Correlation graph, showing relationship between scores in intelligence 

examination Delta 2 and criterion scores. 200 eighth-grade pupils in 
Erie County 84 

18. Correlation graph, showing relationship between scores in intelligence 

examination, Delta 2 and criterion scores. 232 twelve-year-olds of 
Westchester County 84 

19. Intelligence examination, Delta 2. Mental growth curve 92 

20. Miller Mental Ability. Grades 7-12. Percentile graph 94 

21. Intelligence examination, Delta 2. Four-teacher elementary schools. 

Grades 3-8. Percentile graph 110 

6 



FIGURE PAGE 

22. Intelligence examination, Delta 2. One- teacher elementary schools. 

Grades 3-8. Percentile graph Ill 

23. Intelligence examination, Delta 2. Large high schools. Grades 9-12. 

Percentile graph 112 

24. Intelligence examination, Delta 2. Small high schools. Grades 9-12. 

Percentile graph 113 

25. Miller Mental Ability. Large high schools. Grades 9-12. Percentile 

graph 118 

26. Miller Mental Ability. Small high schools. Grades 9-12. Percentile 

graph 119 

27. Combined scores of Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 and Reading 

Examination, Sigma 3, Form B. Four-teacher elementary schools. 
Grades 5-8 and large high schools, grade 9. Percentile graph 122 

28. Combined scores of Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 and Reading 

Examination, Sigma 3, Form B. One-teacher elementary schools. 
Grades 5-8 and small high schools, grade 9. Percentile graph 123 

29. Miller Mental Ability. Median scores for ninth grade, large and small 

high schools. Norm for ninth grade 150 

30. Comparison for each percentile group in Intelligence Examination, 

Delta 2, between median total achievement scores and median 

Delta 2 scores 158 

30a. Comparison for each percentile group in combination of Intelligence 
Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B, 
between median total achievement scores and median scores in 
combination of Delta 2 and Sigma 3 161 

31. Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. Reading growth curve. . . . 164 

32. History Information. Median achievement in grade 8, one- and four- 

teacher rural schools and median achievement of grades 7 and 8 in 
New York City schools 177 

32a. History Thought. Showing median achievement in grade 8, one- and 
four-teacher rural schools and median achievement of grades 7 and 8 
in New York City schools 179 

S3. Spelling: One- and four- teacher schools. Grades 4, 6 and 8. Median 

scores by grades 187 

34. Spelling: One- and four-teacher schools. Ten, twelve and fourteen- 

year-old pupils from grades 4, 6 and 8. Median scores by ages 188 

35. Arithmetic: Addition, multiplication. Four-teacher schools. Grade 8. 

Comparison of median scores with Woody standards 195 

36. Arithmetic: Addition, multiplication and reasoning. One- and four- 

teacher schools. Grade 8. Median scores 197 

37. Intelligence examination. Delta 2. One-teacher elementary schools. 

Grades 3-8. Four-teacher elementary schools and all high schools. 
Grades 3 to 12. Median scores by ages 213 

38. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, 

Form B, combined scores. One- and four-teacher elementary schools. 
Grades 5 to 8, and small and large high schools, grade 9. Median 
scores by grades 217 



LIST OF TABLES 

TABLE PAGE 

1. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. All schools. Grades 5-12. Distribution of 

scores and percentages for each score 35 

2. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Four-teacher elementary schools. Grades 

5-8. Distribution of scores by grades. Median score and median age 
for each grade 38 

3. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Three-teacher schools. Grades 5-8. Dis- 

tribution of scores by grades. Median score and median age for each 
grade 40 

4. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Two-teacher schools. Grades 5-8. Dis- 

tribution of scores by grades. Median score and median age for each 
grade 41 

5. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. One-teacher elementary schools. Grades 

5-8. Distribution of scores by grades. Median score and median 
age for each grade 42 

6. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. One-, two-, three-, and four-teacher ele- 

mentary schools in all counties. Median scores and median ages for 
grades 5-8 45 

7. Age-grade distribution of all pupils tested in four-teacher schools in cer- 

tain supervisory districts. Also median age per grade and percent 
each grade enrolment is of enrolment in grade 1 49 

8. Age-grade distribution of all pupils tested in one-teacher schools in cer- 

tain supervisory districts. Also median ages per grade and percent 
each grade enrolment is of enrolment in grade 1 50 

9. Ages: Median ages for 3940 pupils in one-teacher schools and 5717 

pupils in four- and more-teacher schools. Only pupils examined by 
tests are included 51 

10. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Four- or more-teacher high schools. 

Grades 9-12. Distribution of scores by grades. Median score and 
median age for each grade 54 

11. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Fewer than four-teacher high schools. 

Grades 9-12. Distribution of scores by grades. Median score and 
median age for each grade 56 

12. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Small and large high schools. Median 

scores and median ages in grades 9-12 58 

13. Reading examination, Sigma 1. One- and four- teacher schools in all 

counties. Median scores and median ages for grades 1-4. Median 
scores for other schools 63 

14. Reading: Sigma 1. Four-teacher schools. Grades 1-4. Distribution 

of scores by grades. Median score and age for each grade 65 

15. Reading: Sigma 1. One-teacher schools. Grades 1-4. Distribution 

of scores by grades. Median score and age for each grade 67 

16. Reading: Sigma 1. One- teacher and four or more teacher schools. Per- 

cent of pupils making standard norm in grades 1, 2, 3, and 4 67 

17. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Four- teacher elementary schools and all 

high schools. Grades 5-12. Distribution of scores by ages. Median 
score for each age 69 

8 



TABLE PAGE 

18. Reading: Sigma 3. One-teacher schools. Grades 5-8. Distribution of 

scores by ages. Median score for each age 70 

19. Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. One-, two-, and three-teacher elementary 

schools. Grades 5-8. Four-teacher elementary schools and all high 
schools. Grades 5-12. Median scores by ages 71 

20. Reading: Sigma 1. Four- teacher schools. Grades 1-4. Distribution 

of scores by ages. Median score for each grade 73 

21. Reading: Sigma 1. One-teacher schools. Grades 1-4. Distribution of 

scores by ages. Median score for each age 74 

22. Reading: Sigma 1. Median scores of pupils in one- and four-teacher 

schools by ages 74 

23. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Coefficients of correlation for 

each test with total score and intercorrelation of several tests with 
each other 81 

24. Correlations of Miller Test with other tests and with school marks. 

55 ninth-grade pupils, University of Minnesota High School 86 

25. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Age norms for individuals of ages 

7 to 20 years. Based on about 40,000 cases 90 

26. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Age norms for individuals of ages 

7 to 20 years. Based on 40,000 cases. Table 25 abbreviated 91 

26a. Miller Mental Ability Test. Percentile distribution, September scores, 

6,236 pupils, grades 7-12 93 

26b. Coefficients of correlation of test results from the examination of 41 

junior, senior, and graduate college students 95 

26c. Percentage distribution of 2901 college freshmen marks, academic 

subjects, first quarter 1921-1922, University of Minnesota 96 

27. Reading Examination, Sigma 3. Correlations of several parts of exami- 

nation with the total score, and intercorrelations among the several 
tests. 442 cases of high school students 98 

28. Coefficients of correlation based on 442 cases of ninth grade pupils in 

large high schools, involving intelligence examination Delta 2, 
reading examination, Sigma 3, and Miller Mental Ability Test 99 

29. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Four-teacher schools. Grades 3-8. 

Distribution of scores by grades. Median score and age for each 
grade 104 

30. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Three-teacher schools. Grades 

3-8. Distribution of scores by grades. Median scores and median 
age for each grade 105 

31. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Two- teacher schools. Grades 3-8. 

Distribution of scores by grades. Median score and median age for 
each grade 106 

32. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. One- teacher schools. Grades 3-8. 

Distribution of scores by grades. Median score and age for each 
grade 107 

33. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Four- or more-teacher high schools. 

Grades 9-12. Distribution of scores by grades. Median score and 
age for each grade 108 

34. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Fewer than four-teacher high 

schools. Grades 9-12. Distribution of scores by grades. Median 
score and age for each grade 109 

35. Miller Mental Ability Test. Large high schools. Grades 9-12. Dis- 

tribution of scores by grades. Median score for each grade 116 

36. Miller Mental Ability Test. Small high schools. Grades 9-12. Dis- 

tribution of scores by grades. Median score for each grade 117 



TABLE PAGE 

37. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, 

FormB. Four-teacher elementary schools. Grades 5-8. Large high 
schools, grade 9. Distribution of combined scores by grades. Median 
score for each grade 120 

38. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, 

Form B. One-teacher elementary schools. Grades 5-8. Small high 
schools, grade 9. Distribution of combined scores by grades. Median 
score for each grade 121 

39. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, 

Form B. Combined scores. Overlapping of grades 124 

40. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Distribution and median scores for 

all pupils in grades 4 to 8 inclusive in one school 125 

41. Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B. Distribution and median 

scores for all pupils in grades 5 to 8 inclusive in one school 126 

42. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, 

Form B. Distribution and median scores for two tests combined for 
all pupils in grades 5 to 8 inclusive for one school 127 

43. Percent of overlapping of grades in one school. Intelligence Examina- 

tion, Delta 2; Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B, and Delta 2 
plus Sigma 3 128 

44. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Four-teacher elementary schools. 

Grades 3-8. Age-grade distribution in terms of chronological and 
mental ages 130 

44a. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. One-teacher elementary schools. 
Grades 3-8. Age-grade distribution in terms of chronological and 
mental ages 131 

44b. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Four- or more-teacher high 
schools. Grades 9-12. Age-grade distribution in terms of chrono- 
logical and mental ages 132 

44c. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Fewer than four- teacher high 
schools. Grades 9-12. Age-grade distribution in terms of chrono- 
logical and mental ages 133 

45. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Four-teacher elementary schools 

and all high schools. Grades 3-12. Distribution of scores by ages. 

Median score for each age 135 

45a. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. One- teacher schools. Grades 3-8. 

Distribution of scores by ages. Median score for each age 136 

46. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Grade progress of 12-year-olds in 

terms of mental ability 140 

47. Miller Mental Ability. Large high schools. Grades 9-12. Distribution 

of scores by ages. Median score for each age 141 

48. Miller Mental Ability. Small high schools. Grades 9-12. Distribution 

of scores by ages. Median score for each age 142 

49. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination Sigma 3, 

Form B. Combined scores. Four- teacher elementary schools. 
Grades 5-9. Distribution of scores by ages. Median score for each 
age group 143 

50. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, 

Form B. Combined scores. One-teacher elementary schools. 
Grades 5-9. Distribution of scores by ages 144 

51. Miller Mental Ability Test; Minnesota and New York median scores 

with median ages for high school grades 148 

52. Median scores in several educational tests for each decile group in 

Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 157 



TABLE PAGE 

52a. Median scores in several educational tests for each decile group in 

Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B 159 

53. Median scores in several educational tests for each decile group in 

combination of Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading 

Examination, Sigma 3, Form B 160 

53a. Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B. Age norms for individuals 

of ages 10 to 20 years 165 

54. Distribution of Intelligence Quotients based on Intelligence Examina- 

tion, Delta 2, Reading Quotients based on Reading Examination, 
Sigma 3, Form B. Educational Quotients obtained by dividing Read- 
ing Quotients by Intelligence Quotients 166 

55. Median scores for Group I consisting of 200 eighth grade pupils and 

Group II consisting of 100 eighth grade pupils in the following tests : 
Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, Reading Examination Sigma 3, 
Form B, Spelling, Addition, Multiplication, History Thought, His- 
tory Information and Arithmetical Problems 167 

56. Educational Quotients. Detailed scores and quotients for highest and 

lowest educational quotients for each group 168 

57. Coefficients of Correlation. Two trials with parallel forms of Van 

Wagenen history scales 174 

58. Coefficients of Correlation. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. 

Reading Examination, Sigma 3, and Van Wagenen History tests . . . 174 

59. Average score in history tests for lowest and highest twenty-five per- 

cents of combined Delta 2 and Sigma 3 scores 175 

60. History Information. Distributions and median scores of eighth grade 

pupils in one- and four-teacher schools 177 

61. History Thought. Distributions and median scores of eighth grade 

pupils in one- and four-teacher schools 178 

62. History Thought and Information. One- and four- teacher schools. 

Grade 8 179 

63. Regular word list 182 

64. Spelling: Four-teacher schools, Grades 4, 6, and 8. Distribution of 

scores by grades. Median score and age for each grade 185 

65. Spelling: One- teacher schools. Grades 4, 6, and 8. Distribution of 

scores by grades. Median score and age for each grade 186 

66. Spelling: One- and four-teacher schools. Grades 4, 6, and 8. Median 

scores by grades. Standard scores by grades 186 

67. Spelling: One- and four-teacher elementary schools. Grades 4, 6, and 8. 

Median scores by ages 188 

68. Arithmetic: Addition. Eighth grade. Four- teacher schools. Dis- 

tribution and median scores for twelve counties by schools 192 

69. Arithmetic: Addition. Eighth grades. Four-teacher schools. Distri- 

bution and median scores for twelve counties 193 

70. Arithmetic: Multiplication. Eighth grades. Four-teacher schools. 

Distribution and median scores for twelve counties m 194 

71. Arithmetic: Addition. One- and four- teacher schools. Grades 5 and 8. 

Median scores by grades 195 

72. Arithmetical Reasoning: Exercise 2 of Intelligence Examination, 

Delta 2. One- and four-teacher schools. Grades 3-8. Median scores 
by grades 196 

73. Arithmetical Reasoning: Exercise 2 of Intelligence Examination, 

Delta 2. One- and four- teacher schools. Grades 3-8. Median scores 
by ages 197 

ii 



TABLE PAGE 

74. Algebra: Addition and Subtraction. Ninth grade. Distributions and 

median scores for pupils who have studied algebra eight months .... 201 

75. Algebra: Equation and Formula. Ninth grade. Distributions and 

median scores for pupils who have studied algebra eight months .... 202 

76. Algebra, Hotz: Addition and Subtraction tests and Equation and 

Formula tests. Median scores for pupils studying eight months .... 203 

77. Latin: Vocabulary Test. Large and small high schools. Grade 9. 

Distribution of percentage values. Median scores by counties 206 

78. Latin: Sentence Test. Large and small high schools. Grade 9. Dis- 

tribution of percentage values. Median scores by counties 208 

79. Henmon Latin Test. First year high school pupils who have studied 

Latin one school year. Median scores for vocabulary and sentence 
tests; also standard scores 209 

80. Intelligence Examination. Delta 2. Median scores and ages by grades 

of pupils in one-, two-, three-, and four-teacher elementary schools . . 211 

81. Intelligence Examination. Delta 2. One- , two-, and three- teacher ele- 

mentary schools. Grades 3-8. Four-teacher elementary schools and 
all high schools. Grades 3-12. Median scores by ages 212 

82. Intelligence Examination. Delta 2. One- and four- teacher elementary 

schools. Grades 3-8. Percentile scores 214 

83. Reading Examination. Sigma 3, Form B. One-, two-, three-, and four- 

teacher elementary schools in all counties. Median scores and median 
ages for grades 5-8 215 

84. Reading Examination. Sigma 3, Form B. One-, two-, and three-teacher 

elementary schools. Grades 5-8. Four-teacher elementary schools 
and all high schools. Grades 5-12. Median scores by ages 216 

85. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, 

combined scores. One- and four-teacher elementary schools, grades 
5-8, and small and large high schools, grade 9. Median score for 
each grade 217 

86. One- and four-teacher schools. Comparison of median scores in 

achievement tests for fifth and eighth grades 218 

87. Reading Examination. Sigma 1. One-teacher and four- or more teacher 

schools. Percent of pupils making standard norm in grades 1, 2, 3 
and 4 219 

88. Reading Examination. Sigma 1. Median scores of pupils in one- and 

four-teacher schools by ages 219 

89. Miller Mental Ability Test : Small and large high schools. Grades 9-12. 

Median scores and median ages by grades 220 

90. Miller Mental Ability Test : Small and large high schools. Grades 9-12. 

Median scores by ages 220 

91. Intelligence Examination. Delta 2. Median scores and ages by grades 

of pupils in small and large high schools 221 

92. Reading Examination. Sigma 3, Form B. Small and large high schools. 

Median scores and median ages for grades 9-12 221 



EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT 

CHAPTER I 

1. Introduction 

WHEREVER education is vital it serves social needs. No 
school can continue in favor with its supporters when it 
ignores such needs, and, conversely, any great social inter- 
est will sooner or later find expression in the program of studies of 
educational institutions. Particularly must tax-supported institu- 
tions respond to the varying social pressures of a people and, his- 
torically considered, a public school curriculum is the organized 
expression of what the tax-paying population desires its schools to 
teach. 

It is one thing to provide in a school curriculum the necessary 
means for training children along the lines which society desires. 
Experience shows that schools often, while making all the necessary 
formal provisions for such training, fail to achieve the type of 
finished product desired and intended. It was the function of the 
Division of Tests and Measurements in the New York survey to 
make definite inquiry regarding this finished product of the rural 
schools of the state. It faced not so much the problem of what the 
schools should teach, as the problem of how well do the schools 
teach the things which all admit are included in its legitimate teach- 
ing program. How well do the pupils in these schools learn the 
things which by common agreement they should learn? 

One method of securing an answer to a question of this sort is to 
observe the work of the pupils and teachers in the school. Such a 
method has certain very great advantages, but by almost universal 
admission the results from such a method are unduly influenced by 
the personal bias and inaccurate judgment of the observer. It has 
become common practice, therefore, to supplement such personal 
observations by standard tests and examinations. The advantage 

13 



of such standard tests is that they give objective results which are 
uninfluenced by the personal judgment of individual observers. 
Such results lack concreteness, picturesqueness and the lively sense 
of reality inherent in the direct observation of pupils in action, but 
they are objectively statable in mathematical terms and thus aid 
greatly in the objective evaluation of the school product. 




Figure 1. — Shaded areas indicate supervisory districts in which testing was done. 
Figures indicate the numbers of the supervisory district in the counties 

2. Scope of Examinations 
For the purposes of the survey the state was divided into seven 
districts. The division was made on a geographical, economic and 
social basis. Within each of these districts particular counties were 
chosen and within each county single supervisory districts were 
selected. It was the intention to select these districts in such a man- 
ner as to include all kinds of rural 1 schools and thus to secure a fair 
and accurate picture of prevailing conditions throughout the state. 

x The term "rural schools" in New York state means schools in places of 
less than 4500 population. 

i4 



The chosen districts lie in the following counties: Cayuga, Clinton, 
Columbia, Erie, Herkimer, St. Lawrence, Tompkins, Wayne, West- 
chester, Otsego, and Oswego. In the districts thus selected, the 
tests were given in every school from the largest and most easily 
accessible to the smallest and most remote. 1 In addition to tests in 
these districts, examinations were also given in the consolidated 
school at Greigsville, Livingston County, and in the junior high 
schools in Rochester and Buffalo and in the senior high school at 
Syracuse. 

In each school every elementary pupil was examined with one or 
more tests. In grades one to four tests were given to more than 
5000 children. In grades 5 to 8, inclusive, about 6000 and in grades 
9 to 12 2500 pupils were tested. In all, about 14,000 pupils in 441 
schools were examined. 

One kind of test was given throughout the entire examination, 
namely, a test in silent reading. The importance of this sort of 
measurement will be discussed later. For grades 1 to 4 the reading 
examination, Sigma 1, as developed in connection with the Vir- 
ginia Survey, was used. No other test was given to all primary 
pupils. In a few schools a group intelligence examination was used. 
A single test, Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B, was given in 
grades 5 to 12 inclusive. The various parts of this test had been 
widely used previously but never before in this particular com- 
bination. In grades 5 to 8 tests were given also in spelling and in the 
fundamentals of arithmetic. In the high school, those pupils who 
were studying Latin and algebra at the time were given tests in 
these subjects. From grades 3 to 12 inclusive, a general intelligence 
examination was given as supplementary to the achievement tests, 
primarily for the purpose of studying the classification of children 
in the schools, and of checking the efficiency of the schools as meas- 
ured by certain of the achievement tests. In all these grades, the 
Delta 2 Intelligence Examination was used, and in addition, Form A 
of the Miller Mental Ability Tests was given to the high school 
students. 

1 Director's Note: Every school in seven supervisory districts was included 
and in the remaining districts all of the schools in a random selection of towns 
(townships) were included. 

15 



3. The Field Work 

The field work involved in testing something over 14,000 children 
was done principally by New York school people. A chief examiner 
was selected for each of the districts chosen as above stated. Five 
of the examiners were professors of education or psychology in 
normal schools, colleges or universities within the state; one was a 
graduate student at Teachers College, Columbia University, and 
had had extensive experience in a state department of education in a 
neighboring state; and a seventh was superintendent of one of the 
city schools of the state. In order that all might follow exactly the 
same method of examining, extended directions were written in the 
form of an Examiner's Manual. This manual gave a complete 
schedule of the examinations to be given for each type of school, 
specifying grades to be examined, tests to be used and time allotted 
to examinations. Appended thereto was a complete list of all the 
materials the examiner would need in the examinations. Following 
this schedule, detailed directions were given for the conduct of each 
particular test or battery of tests. On the back of the "Teacher's 
Record of Pupils" provision was made for an examiner's record 
which would show in detail the number of children examined, the 
grades in which they were found, the types of schools, size of build- 
ing, length of term and the examiner's comment on the examination 
in each class and school. 

For the purpose of clearing up any obscure points in the manual of 
directions and the schedule of examinations, and of further stand- 
ardizing the methods of work, all of the chief examiners were called 
together at the State Department of Education in Albany for a two- 
days' training school. At this time the complete manual was studied 
in detail and all questions as to procedure were carefully ironed out. 
As a part of this training school, each of the examiners gave tests in 
the city schools of Albany under the observation of the Director of 
the Division of Tests and Measurements, and the other members of 
the training school. Careful check was made of the work of each 
examiner and a final conference was held to perfect details of work. 

Following this central training school, each of the chief examiners 
called together, at a place which had been appointed previously for 
the purpose, the individual examiners who were to serve under his 

16 



direction. These several training schools continued for two or three 
days each, during which time the examiners familiarized themselves 
with the examiner's guide, and practised giving the tests under 
supervision in local schools. All of this preliminary training, both 
for the chief examiners and for their helpers, took place during the 
week of April 17, 1922. The examinations proper began on Monday, 
April 24, and were completed in all schools within a period of 
approximately two weeks from the time of beginning. At the end 
of the first day of field work each Chief Examiner met his helpers, 
and following a conference, reported the progress of his work to the 
Director of the Division. Frequent reports were made by each 
examiner throughout the period of examination. Upon the com- 
pletion of the field work each Chief Examiner made a detailed 
written report upon the work done under his direction, calling atten- 
tion to unusual conditions affecting the results from any particular 
school or class. Only such tests are used in this report as were 
vouched for by these examiners. 

4. Scoring, Tabulation, and Interpretation 

At the end of the testing period, all materials were shipped to the 
University of Minnesota where they were scored, tabulated and 
studied. 

In the work of scoring and tabulation, Professor M. J. Van 
Wagenen rendered very great assistance, directing a considerable 
part of the work. 

The interpretation of the test results is the work of the writer of 
this volume. 

Acknowledgments 

The writer desires to express his appreciation to the Joint Com- 
mittee of Twenty-One, and particularly to Professor George A. 
Works, Chairman of the Committee on Rural Schools, and to Mr. 
George M. Wiley of the State Department of Education, Mr. E. R. 
Eastman, and Mrs. A. E. Brigden, members of the sub-committee 
on direction of the survey. Throughout the work of this Division 
the attitude of these persons was the distinctly professional one of 
securing an accurate record showing the educational product of the 
rural schools of the state. In the organization of the testing pro- 

2 17 



gram, the Director was assisted in a most effective way by Dr. J. 
Cayce Morrison, Specialist in Educational Measurements in the 
State Department of Education, and by Dr. Paul J. Kruse, Pro- 
fessor of Educational Psychology in the New York State College 
of Agriculture at Cornell University. 

For the efficient direction of the field work in the several super- 
visory districts, credit is due to the following persons who acted as 
chief examiners: 

Mr. Paul J. Kruse, Professor of Educational Psychology, Cornell 
University. 

Mr. Mark A. May, Professor of Psychology, Syracuse University. 

Mr. L. A. Peckstein, Professor of Psychology, Rochester Univer- 
sity. 

Mr. W. H. Pillsbury, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, 
Buffalo, New York. 

Mr. R. G. Reynolds, Formerly Assistant Commissioner of Educa- 
tion, Vermont. 

Mr. Charles C. Root, Professor of Education, Buffalo State 
Normal School. 

Mr. Allen J. Williams, Superintendent of Schools, Lake Placid, 
New York. 

Whatever dependability is attributable to the actual testing of the 
pupils is due to the imaginative understanding with which these men 
grasped the significance of the testing program and the fidelity with 
which they trained their helpers and actually carried the program 
through. 

To all the persons named and to Professors Van Wagenen and 
Miller for their assistance in interpretation of results the writer of 
this report desires to express his sincere appreciation. 



1 8 



CHAPTER II 
RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

FOR the reader who desires an overview of results without the 
intrusion of details and technical matters, this chapter pre- 
sents in summary form the more obvious conclusions to be 
derived from the tests. These conclusions will be given in short 
paragraphs under the headings of the chapters which follow. Here 
also will be given such general recommendations as are considered 
most important in the light of the test results. 

Reading Achievements 

1. The results of the reading tests indicate that the rural schools 
of New York state do not succeed in teaching children to read 
English prose as well as is desirable. Exceptions to this general 
statement may be made in the case of certain schools and certain 
districts. 

2. In reading ability the primary grades of the New York rural 
schools score below those of Virginia and North Carolina. Grade 2 
of the Virginia and North Carolina schools score 14.5 and 14 re- 
spectively while New York schools score 12.7 points. Compared 
with Norfolk children who score 18 and Wisconsin children who 
score 20, the inferiority of New York reading achievement is still 
greater. Judged by the standard norms, grades 2, 3 and 4 are one- 
half year behind where they should be. 

3. Without exception, in all the primary grades, the four-teacher 
schools exceed the one-teacher schools in Sigma 1 scores. 

4. The superiority of the larger schools over the smaller schools is 
constant throughout the upper grades. The difference in the scores 
of these two is about equivalent to the progress which New York 

19 



pupils make in one year of schooling. The 7 th grades of the four- 
teacher schools, with a median age of 13.5 years, score 70.5 while 
the 8th grades of the one-teacher schools, with a median age of 14.4 
years, make a score of only 65.8. 

5. Reading abilities of high school pupils are not adequate to 
meet the practical needs of every day life. Only those who remain 
through the 12th grade and graduate really acquire facility in 
reading. 

6. The reading ability of the smaller high schools is, in general, 
inferior to that of the larger high schools. 

Measures of Ability 

1. The Haggerty Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, was given to 
all pupils tested in grades 3 to 12 inclusive. Numerous correlations 
and other evidences resulting from its wide use in survey and experi- 
mental problems show the availability of this intelligence examina- 
tion for use in predicting, with a high degree of assurance, the 
success of pupils in school work. Among tests of its type, the data 
show, Delta 2 has a high rank. 

2. The Miller Mental Ability Test, an intelligence examination 
composed of three tests, was given to all high school pupils. This 
test has a high correlation with other intelligence examinations, 
namely, a coefficient of .90 with the average of five well-known tests, 
and a coefficient well over .80 between each of its two forms and the 
average of nine other intelligence examinations. 

Grouping of Pupils 

1. Results of intelligence tests show a very large amount of over- 
lapping from grade to grade. 

2. There are children in the lower grades who are intellectually 
able to do work of one, two, or three grades above the one in which 
they are placed. There are also those whose intellectual ability 
renders doubtful the advisability of advancing them to the grades 
in which they are found. 

3. The scores made by high school students indicate that there 
are many first year students who are equal or superior to second, 
third, and even fourth year median students. 



School Progress 

1. A study of mental ages and of chronological age-scores indicate 
groups of children who are not placed in school according to their 
abilities. For example, of all the 12-year-olds tested, there are 15 
percent of them who have the median ability of grade 8 but who are 
in lower grades. Likewise, there are 5 percent of the 12-year-olds 
with 4th grade ability, and 5 percent with 3rd grade ability who are 
placed higher in the grades. Such data point out that the effect of 
the school program is to keep the pupils of any age within a narrower 
range of grade distribution than their intellectual abilities justify. 

2. The combined scores of intelligence and reading examinations 
show about the same amount of overlapping of age-scores and about 
the same number of cases deserving advancement on the basis of 
ability but not receiving it. 

School Organization 
1. A grade connotes a year's work in school. The completion of 
the 8th grade indicates that pupils have covered eight years of 
school work and have acquired sufficient information and skill to go 
on with high school work. The prevailing plan of school organiza- 
tion assumes that a grade is the same throughout the state. The 
results from the survey show such differences between the achieve- 
ments of one school and those of the same grade in another school as 
to render the meaning of grade designations, and of all school 
organization based on grade units, vague and unsatisfactory. 

Intelligence and Achievement 

1. In general, an advance in the total achievement scores corre- 
sponding to the advance in intelligence scores is found. 

2. A comparison of the combination scores of Delta 2 and Sigma 3 
with the total achievement scores shows the definite diagnostic 
value of these two tests. 

3. For measuring school efficiency an educational quotient, found 
by dividing the intelligence quotient of an individual into his read- 
ing quotient, may be used. This combines chronological age, intelli- 
gence, and educational achievement all in a single figure showing 
what the school is doing with the ability found therein. 



4. By the use of the educational quotient it appears that some of 
the low scoring schools are securing more in terms of the ability of 
the pupils than are some schools who score high in achievement 
tests. 

American History 

Results from Information Test. — 1. The median for the 8th 
grade of the larger rural schools is about y$ year's progress short 
of New York City standards for the 8th grade. 

2. The 8 th grade median in one- teacher schools is below the New 
York City school standard for the 7th grade. These one-teacher 
schools are, therefore, one year behind the New York City schools in 
progress. 

3. The larger rural schools, although they are below the New 
York City achievements, are almost a full year's progress ahead of 
the smaller rural schools. 

Results from Thought Test. — 1. The eighth grades of four- 
teacher rural schools score somewhat below the eighth grades of 
New York City while the eighth grades of one-teacher rural schools 
achieve less than the seventh grades of New York City. 

2. The deficiencies, therefore, amount to a half year's progress in 
the case of the larger schools and more than a year's progress for 
the smaller schools. 

Spelling 

1. Scores for the larger schools and for the 8 th grade in the 
smaller schools compare favorably with the standards for 84 cities 
throughout the country. 

2. The larger schools achieve superior results in spelling. 

Arithmetic 

1. New York eighth grade scores should equal or exceed 18.5 
in addition and 18 in multiplication which are Woody (Sept.) 
standards for that grade. 

2. The median in addition for the 845 8th grade pupils in the 
larger schools of New York was 16.6, a score slightly above the 
Woody standard for the 6th grade. 

3. In addition only one 8th grade median score equalled the 
Woody standard for grade 7. 



4. The median in multiplication is 16.8 which is within one 
problem of the standard. Since the schools of three counties equal, 
and the schools of two other counties approximate the standard, the 
achievement of these larger rural schools in multiplication may be 
considered satisfactory. 

Algebra 

1. The Hotz Algebra Tests, based on the type of Algebra pre- 
scribed in the New York syllabus, were given to all pupils who had 
studied the subject three months or more and who, at the time of 
the test, were studying it. 

2. The larger New York schools are achieving satisfactory results 
in the fundamentals of Algebra. 

3. New York scores are higher than those from Virginia, North 
Carolina, and Kentucky rural schools. 

4. The larger New York rural schools exceed both the records of 
the above states and the Hotz standards in each of the two tests. 

5. The larger rural schools of New York compare favorably with 
junior high schools of Rochester and Buffalo, and with the con- 
solidated school at Greigsville in the teaching of Algebra. 

6. The smaller rural high schools of New York, though scoring 
higher than rural schools of other states, fall below the larger 
schools in achievement. 

Latin 

1. Pupils in New York schools show a wide range in their knowl- 
edge of Latin. 

2. The rural schools of New York, as measured by the vocabulary 
test, are teaching Latin less well than are good schools generally 
throughout the country. They do about as well as the schools 
of Rochester and Griegsville. 

3. As measured by the sentence tests, the rural schools of New 
York score lower than the good schools throughout the country and 
lower than the schools of Rochester and Greigsville. 

The Larger School Unit 
1. The larger schools show grade by grade approximately the 
same median ages as do the smaller schools. 

23 



2. As measured by the Haggerty intelligence examination Delta 
2, the pupils in the larger schools, grade by grade, have greater 
capacity to do the work of the school program than have the pupils 
in the one- teacher schools. The difference in favor of the larger 
schools is about .7 of the growth which pupils make in one year. 

3. The difference shown by grade scores is emphasized by a com- 
parison of median scores made by pupils of the same chronological 
ages in the two types of schools. 

4. The reading examination Sigma 3 confirms the results of the 
intelligence tests both in grade and age medians. 

5. A combination of the above test scores further emphasizes the 
difference which each shows separately. 

6. All the achievement tests except multiplication give similar 
results. 

7. The difference noted above for the upper grades is shown to 
exist in the lower grades by the results of the sigma 1 tests. 

8. The evidence from the New York scores is confirmed by results 
from similar schools in other states. 

9. The Survey results are confirmed by Morrison's study of 
similar schools. 

10. The causes of the difference are not all apparent but it is true 
that the one-teacher schools have teachers of inferior training. 

11. It is obvious from the test results that the one- teacher school 
is the most serious educational problem facing the State of New 
York. 

Recommendations 

It is not the purpose of a testing program such as the one here 
employed to provide a detailed diagnosis of the causes lying back of 
the school product revealed. Its aim is to throw light on the gen- 
eral situation in the schools, to suggest the problems deserving 
further consideration and to recommend the administrative ap- 
proach to their solution. We may well ask, therefore, what are the 
outstanding school problems which the test results proclaim as 
important? 

With little hesitancy, it may be said that the problem for first 
consideration is the improvement of ability on the part of ele- 
mentary pupils to read English prose. To develop such capacities 

24 



is a major function of the elementary school. For the rural schools 
to fail in it is to fall short in a fundamental job and to leave the 
young men and women of the smaller towns, villages and the open 
country handicapped for the great complex game of life, where they 
must compete alongside of men and women trained in good city 
schools and whose childhood was favored with better opportunities. 
Administrative and teaching agencies should rescue the subject of 
teaching silent reading from its present state of neglect and make it 
a major aim in the intermediate and grammar grades, and demand 
as a basic requirement for high school entrance a reasonable attain- 
ment in reading skill. 

Improvement in reading teaching must be begun in the earliest 
grades, because, as the tests show, the reading deficiency exists even 
in grades one, two and three. It must be continued throughout all 
the grades and into the high school. Thus, naming the problem of 
reading as a basic aim does not give the technic for its solution. 
This must come as the result of the experimental study of the 
problem in the schools concerned, the application of known methods 
the value of which has been experimentally determined, and the 
professional vigilance of teachers and of supervisory officers. All of 
these events will surely follow if the enormity and importance of the 
problem are clearly grasped. 

Without doubt, the largest single potentiality within the state for 
meeting the need thus made evident lies in the State Department 
of Education. Reference is not here made to its legal status, im- 
portant as that is. Its eminence for educational leadership is rather 
in mind. No other agency can so effectively define educational 
problems, or exert so wide an influence toward their solution. If 
this Department will but stress anew this basic function of American 
schools, that act will, in itself, exert a stimulating influence of wide 
scope; if it will define the necessary technique for improving silent 
reading in the rural schools and set acceptable standards of achieve- 
ment in terms of objective measures, that will be a still more impor- 
tant step; and if it can go further and lend its direct supervisory 
assistance to local schools, that will be better still. 

It is not to be inferred that the State Department of Education is 
now indifferent to this problem. The recommendation here made is 

25 



intended to support all effective work now in progress and to stress 
the need for an extension of activity in this direction. 

Of special promise in this field is the recent creation, within the 
Department, of the position of Specialist in Educational Measure- 
ments. The function of such a specialist is not confined to giving 
advice to school people as to the quality of tests and the methods of 
their use. These are important matters, but remedial measures 
must follow diagnosis, and the giving of tests must be followed by 
constructive assistance in school reorganization and teaching tech- 
nique. The State Department has so conceived this position and 
has already rendered great service to the schools of the state. It 
needs increased financial support that it may make a direct attack 
on this reading problem. 

But teachers and local school administrators are the final agencies 
in the solution of the reading problem. They can solve the problem 
for their local schools whenever they realize its importance and 
strive for the necessary technique. Many of them are already doing 
it, as is evidenced by the excellent results from some schools. 

A second outstanding matter for recommendation is the situation 
in American history teaching. The importance of history as a 
fundamental factor in the elementary program will be stressed later. 
The results shown by the survey tests combine with the very great 
importance of the subject, to make the teaching of history one of 
the crucial problems confronting the rural schools. Nor will the 
problem be solved by revision of syllabi and Regents examinations. 
There must be a greater contact of classroom teachers with persons 
who know history teaching problems, whether such masters of 
technique are in the supervisory force of local schools, in the State 
Department of Education or entirely outside the school system. 
The facts of United States history, the principles of democratic 
government, and an understanding and appreciation of American 
institutions can be taught effectively in the rural schools. Super- 
vision in the sense of helpful assistance in local teaching problems is 
the thing needed. Such supervision implies not merely the making 
of a history curriculum and the setting of objective standards of 
accomplishment, but also the training of teachers in service, and 
direct assistance, upon call, in classroom instruction. Adequate 

26 



provision, both in local school systems and in the State Depart- 
ment for such supervision, is urgently recommended. 

A third recommendation is based upon the possible use of intelli- 
gence and achievement tests in school supervision. 

Numerous schools and systems of schools within the state have 
already made extensive use of tests and, as already noted, the State 
Department has established an agency for promoting this type of 
work. The continuance and extension of this work both locally and 
through the state organization are to be recommended. Such work 
should be under the direction of persons of adequate training, experi- 
ence, and judgment. The indiscriminate use of tests by immature, 
untrained, and inexperienced teachers or other school officers is to be 
discouraged, as likely to do more harm than good. The issues at 
stake are great and require expert service. It should be provided in 
generous measure. 

The services which such agencies should seek to render are as 
follows : 

(a) The creation of objective standards of accomplishment for 
pupils of particular ages and school grades in the major subjects of 
the school curriculum. 

(b) The determination of objective standards of school organiza- 
tion in terms of school attainment. 

(c) The better grouping of pupils for instructional purposes. 

(d) The development of the teaching technique essential to the 
achievement of the desirable standards noted above. 

(e) The continuous revision of curricula in the light of experience 
and of general social and educational progress. 

(/) The development of special curricula, special classes, and 
specialized methods wherever needed. 

The general program for such service involves bulletins, con- 
ferences, visitation and objective measurement. 

A little used means for improving the conditions in local schools 
lies in the normal schools of the state and in the departments and 
colleges of education in state colleges and in other educational insti- 
tutions. As already noted, these institutions made a signal con- 
tribution to the work of the survey. They can and should continue 
to render some direct service to the schools. Properly adjusted to 

27 



work of this type, these higher institutions would increase the 
amount of expert service available for supervisory uses within the 
state enormously. Local school officers and the State Department 
of Education should take the initiative in inviting such co-operation 
from these educational institutions. 

Nor would the schools be the only ones to profit by such co-opera- 
tion. More direct contact between actual school conditions and the 
teacher-training agencies is everywhere needed. Properly arranged, 
such contact will better define the problems of teacher-training, will 
quicken the study of educational questions, and will vitalize the 
teaching in colleges and normal schools. 

A final recommendation concerns the size of the school unit. 
Practically every inference to be derived from the test results points 
to the advantage of the larger school unit. The existing one- teacher 
school is the most unsatisfactory educational institution in New 
York state. Compared to the best schools in the larger communi- 
ties, the one- teacher school is across the world. This fact the patrons 
of these schools should realize, and in behalf of the welfare of their 
own children, they should demand from the state an adequate pro- 
vision for consolidation, and adequate provision means adequate 
financial support as well as satisfactory organization. Less than 
this, the rural citizen cannot accept without proving recreant to the 
interests of the oncoming generation of rural boys and girls, and 
recreant to the future of agricultural development and of life in the 
open country. 



jS 



CHAPTER III 

READING 

The Problem of Illiteracy 

IF THE entire population of New York who are ten years old 
and over were placed in a single file, the line would reach nearly 
five thousand miles. If one were to pass down this line, every 
twentieth person he would meet would be unable to write his own 
name. 1 If these half million illiterates were segregated into a similar 
line, it would stretch across the state from New York City to Utica, 
a distance of 240 miles. Among the native-born whites the propor- 
tion of illiterates is one-half of one percent while it is fourteen per- 
cent among the foreign-born who were living in the state in 1920. 2 
It is clear, however, that the ability to write one's own name, 
important as it is, is no very adequate educational achievement. If 
a person is to participate in the social life of American democratic 
society in any real way, it is necessary for him to read the English 
language. Nor is a mere elementary reading knowledge, such as is 
attained by primary children, sufficient. The problems of econom- 
ics, of politics and of religion are discussed in periodicals and books 
which primary children cannot read. The ability to read intelli- 
gently the daily papers, simply written as they are, is considerably 
in excess of the achievement of primary children. In view of these 
considerations it would appear that census figures for illiteracy are 
somewhat illusory. They suggest a better condition than actually 
exists. If the census definition may be accepted as a criterion for 
illiteracy, then there should be recognized a condition of near- 

1 The definition of illiteracy used by the United States Census Bureau is 
inability to write one's own name. 

2 Figures are from the Fourteenth Census (1920). 

29 



Illiteracy which, because of its great extent, is of more concern than 
illiteracy itself. 

Near-illiteracy and the Army Examinations 
No better evidence of the amount of near-illiteracy which exists 
throughout the country can be obtained at this time than that 
revealed by the army intelligence examinations. The bearing of 
these examinations on the problem of public education in the state of 
New York are of sufficient importance to justify a word of detail. 
" Group Examination Alpha" was designed for men who could read 
the English language; the other, "Group Examination Beta," was 
intended for illiterates or non-English reading soldiers. The Alpha 
examination is sufficiently simple that it can be given to pupils in the 
fourth and fifth grades of the public schools. Yet despite the gen- 
eral simplicity of the Alpha test, it was found necessary to examine 
24.9 percent of recruits with the Beta test. In general it may, there- 
fore, be said that one-fourth of America's young men between the 
ages of 21 and 31, who were taken in the army draft, cannot read 
the English language as well as a fourth or fifth grade child in the 
public schools. 

These figures, taken from the Memoir of the National Academy 
of Science on " Psychological Examining in the United States 
Army," are for the country as a whole. For the state of New York, 
the Memoir shows that 16.6 percent of the men were unable to read 
the Alpha examinations, and that thirty-one percent of the recruits 
from New York City were required to take the Beta examination. 
Less than two percent of these were rated as feeble-minded, leaving 
29 percent who were illiterates, or near-illiterates, and who had 
sufficient intelligence that they might have learned to read under 
adequate educational conditions. Two percent of these were un- 
able to speak English, nine percent were able to speak English but 
could not read and write it, and twenty percent were able to read 
and write somewhat but not sufficiently well to read sentences such 
as the following: 

"Get the answers to these examples as quickly as you can" 
11 It is wise to put some money aside and not spend it all, 
so that you may prepare for old age and sickness ." 

30 



To put the matter succinctly, it may be said that only 69 out of 
every 100 men whom New York City sent to the army were able to 
read English with sufficient facility to enable them to read the news- 
papers or to understand army orders printed in the language of the 
country. 

It seems pertinent to present these facts concerning near-illiteracy 
because the people of the state of New York may legitimately expect 
their system of public education to remedy the situation. No 
single obligation rests so heavily upon the public schools as that of 
teaching the young people of the state to read the English language 
— the language of American politics and government, the language 
of American commerce and industry, the language of American 
literature and of American social ideals. No achievement in other 
fields will compensate for failure here, and no mere knowledge of the 
simple words and sentences of the primary school readers will 
suffice. Young people should master the words and the language 
structure involved in English sentences and paragraphs which are 
necessary to mature thought. For such an achievement on the part 
of its citizens the state can afford to pay any necessary sum of 
money. To be satisfied with less is perilous to its democratic insti- 
tutions. 

These and like considerations which argue for increased efficiency 
in all schools, apply with increasing force to educational improve- 
ment in rural education. Within a generation, the economic and 
social problems of agricultural communities have been transformed. 
Formerly, the problem of the farmer was primarily to find land, to 
rid it of the obstacles to cultivation and to plant it, tend it and to 
harvest the produce it yielded. These problems of production are 
to-day tremendously complicated with the problems of marketing 
which are no longer local. On the contrary, the prices of fruit and 
grain in central New York are determined by the conditions of living 
in the city of New York, and these in turn by the conditions of pro- 
duction in Europe and Asia and South America. The intelligent 
farmer in New York State can no longer be concerned with the con- 
ditions of his own farm, his own county or his own state, merely. 
In his struggle for a living and for the accumulation of wealth he is 
affected by conditions which are world-wide and vastly beyond the 

31 



range of his personal experiences. If he is not to be the mere tool 
of these world-wide economic forces, if he is to adjust his own life 
to them and use them for his own welfare, he must understand them, 
and to understand them he must read the books, magazines and 
newspapers in which they are discussed. The capacity for intelli- 
gent reading of such literature implies a training in the mechanics 
of reading greatly in excess of that needed a generation ago. The 
successful farmer is to-day a business man, an economist, a sociol- 
ogist and a practical scientist. He can be none of these things 
satisfactorily in New York State in the year 1922 without a facile 
command of English prose. His imperative needs as a farmer, 
therefore, lay upon his public schools an inescapable burden of 
teaching the reading of English prose up to the levels of these needs. 

Reading English Prose 
With a view to throwing light upon the efficiency of the rural 
schools in meeting this problem of near-illiteracy and in developing 
reading ability on the part of the pupils in these schools, a series 
of tests in silent reading was given. In all the upper grades and high 
schools of the selected supervisory districts the pupils were examined 
with a battery of three tests. The first of these tests is designed to 
measure the pupil's grasp of English vocabulary. The words for the 
tests were selected from those occurring in school readers designed 
for the upper elementary grades. A large number of such readers 
have been examined, and from these the selections most frequently 
used have been chosen. These most commonly used selections have 
been studied for vocabulary and the words have been tabulated for 
frequency of occurrence. These words have then been made into 
tests of the type shown below: 

Test 1. — Vocabulary 
Draw a line under the best definition for each word. 

1. labor (look sad, to work, liquor, to read) 1 

2. victory (fight, to win a battle, sign, to exclaim) 2 

3. captain (wears cap, person who commands, tall man, master) 3 

4. cabin (small house, room, to peep, a ship) 4 

5. tea (drink made from leaves, afternoon party, food, letter) 5 

6. idle (lazy, quiet, not to work, dreaming) 6 

7. route (way, to be traveled, march, pass, course) 7 

8. abundance (plenty, multitude, fruitful, several) 8 

32 



9. artificial (artful, not natural, to narrate, crafty) 9 

10. embark (troops, fortune, to board a vessel, to undertake) 10 

11. courtesy (humor, politeness, ideals, training) 11 

12. shriek (to laugh, to seize, to spoil, to scream) 12 

13. chivalry (kindness, a gallant deed, to be fair, just) 13 

14. pamphlet (a disease, a publisher, a writer, a small paper book) 14 

15. pierce (an enemy, a passage, a mystery, to penetrate) 15 

Etc. to 50 words. 

Eighty percent of the words used in this entire test are given by 
Thorndike in his list of the 10,000 commonest words in the English 
language. All of the words in the first half of the test are in Thorn- 
dike's list. The harder and less frequently occurring words are near 
the end of the test. 

The source from which the words are selected and the presence of 
this large proportion in the Thorndike list are conclusive evidence 
of the important part which they play in a usable reading vocab- 
ulary. 

Test 2. — Sentence Reading 
Draw a line under the right answer to each question. 

1. Are shingles used on houses? YES NO 

2. Are all fabrics made of wool? YES NO 

3. Would you trust a dishonest character? YES NO 

4. Are all animals kept in captivity? YES NO 

5. Are some orphans adopted by friends? . YES NO 

6. Is all exercise violently taken? YES NO 

7. Should valuable documents be preserved? YES NO 

8. Are the opponents in controversy always enemies? YES NO 

9. Is the protection of citizens desired by most mayors? YES NO 

10. Do the follies of children ever astound their parents? YES NO 

11. Is counterfeited money coveted by honest folk? YES NO 

12. Are victorious persons sometimes accorded honor? YES NO 

13. Do travelers occasionally perish in a severe climate? YES NO 

14. Do all inland cities have marvelous dwellings? YES NO 

15. Do manuscripts convey information? YES NO 

Test 2.— Sentence Reading 
The second test of the series is a sentence reading test, the items 
of which are chosen from the same source as were the words for the 
vocabulary test. Ninety-eight percent of all the words in the first 
half of the test occur in the Thorndike list and 92 percent of all the 
words of the test are to be found there. The sentences into which 
these words are combined do not involve all the factors of sentence 
structure, but they do require the pupil to understand words in 
certain of their relations. The first ten sentences of the test are 

3 33 



given above. The succeeding sentences increase in difficulty so 
that but a small percent of the pupils will answer all the later 
questions correctly. 



Test 3. — Paragraph Reading 
The largest space in the battery of tests was devoted to a "Para- 
graph Reading Test," of which the following is the easiest sample : 

I. 

They went across the hall to a door at the back of the house. It opened 
before them and disclosed a long, bare, melancholy room, made barer still by 
lines of desks. At one of these a lonely boy was reading near a feeble fire; and 
Scrooge sat down upon a form, and wept to see his poor forgotten self as he had 
used to be. 

1. Underline the words telling where the door was: 

in the front 
at the side 
in the rear 
by the porch 

2. Underline the false statements: 

The room was cheery. 

The room had desks in it. 

The room was filled with beautiful pictures and flowers. 

3. Check one of the following statements which is true: 

a. There were many boys getting their lessons. 

b. One lonely lad was reading by a fire. 

c. Only one person crossed the hall. 

4. Underline the statements which are true: 

Scrooge cried. 

Scrooge was sorry for himself. 

Scrooge laughed aloud. 



This paragraph is from the Christmas Carol, by Dickens, a prose 
narrative common to a large number of school readers and familiar 
to all readers of English prose. The succeeding paragraphs of the 
test were from well-known writings of Hawthorne, Eliot, Howells, 
Harris, Barlow and Washington. 

These three tests, with properly adapted fore-exercises for each 
test and explicit directions, were combined into a single examination 
requiring in all about forty minutes of the pupil's time. 

34 



Statistical Characteristics oe the Examination 
The maximum combined score possible in the three tests is 146 
points, distributed as follows: Vocabulary 50 points, sentence read- 
ing 40 points and paragraph reading 56 points. The last score is 
obtained by multiplying the number of questions, which is 28, by 2. 
How well this reading test distributes the individuals in a school 
group may be seen by a study of Table 1 and Figure 2, which repre- 



Table 1. — Reading: Sigma 3 — Form B. All Schools — Grades 5-12. 

TRIBUTION OF SCORES AND PERCENTAGES FOR EACH SCORE 



Dis- 



Score 


Four rooms 
5-12 


One room 
5-8 


Totals 


Percent 





4 


2 


6 


.1 


1-5 


13 


15 


28 


.4 


6-10 


18 


28 


46 


.7 


11-15 


40 


52 


92 


1.5 


16-20 


58 


75 


133 


2.1 


21-25 


67 


95 


162 


2.6 


26-30 


113 


104 


217 


3.5 


31-35 


135 


130 


265 


4.2 


36-40 


167 


141 


308 


4.8 


41-45 


201 


153 


354 


5.6 


46-50 


200 


117 


317 


5.0 


51-55 


195 


131 


326 


5.1 


56-60 


193 


120 


313 


5.0 


61-65 


199 


125 


324 


5.2 


66-70 


244 


114 


358 


5.7 


71-75 


258 


98 


356 


5.7 


76-80 


249 


93 


342 


5.4 


81-85 


244 


95 


339 


5.4 


86-90 


241 


83 


324 


5.2 


91-95 


245 


94 


339 


5.4 


96-100 


221 


49 


270 


4.3 


101-105 


180 


56 


236 


3.8 


106-110 


173 


35 


208 


3.3 


111-115 


171 


19 


190 


3.0 


116-120 


155 


20 


175 


2.8 


121-125 


97 


3 


100 


1.6 


126-130 


66 


2 


68 


1.0 


131-135 


53 


1 


54 


.9 


136-140 


29 




29 


.5 


141-145 


10 




10 


.2 


146-150 


1 




1 


.01 


Total 


4,240 


2,050 


6,290 


100 



35 



sent the scores for more than 6000 pupils from grades 5 to 12, in- 
clusive, in schools of all types. The short vertical lines at the bottom 
of this figure represent the median scores for the several grades for 
which they are numbered. 

It is, of course, not sufficient that an examination should show a 
good distribution of individuals. It is necessary that the rating 
which any particular individual receives from a test should be a 
dependable rating; i. e., one which he would receive at any time 



i 








1, 


-! 


I 


1_ 


tlt 












> 




























i ■■ 




r 














1 












f— 


j 
















L 








L 


J 




















i 






! 


o i 


D ' 


* 


5 

o : 


6 

t 


30 1 


T 
t 


9 

10 90 


? 10 

100 1 


n ie 

l 


L' 


50 *0 130 



Figure 2. — Reading examination. Sigma 3, Form B. All schools — grades 
5-12. 6290 pupils. Surface of frequency. Showing percentage of pupils 
making each score. Short verticals represent grade medians 



the test is given. In other words, the reliability of the test should 
be such that any single trial of it is dependable. This Sigma 3 
examination meets this criterion with a high degree of satisfaction, 
the coefficient of correlation 1 on two trials of the same form of the 
examination being about .89. 2 
The validity of the examination as a measure of reading achieve- 

1 Unless otherwise stated, all coefficients of correlation reported in this volume 

2 * • y 
are calculated by the Pearson Products-Moment method : r = tt=~ zj= 

2 Haggerty, Reading Examination, Manual of Directions, 1921, pp. 41ff. 

36 



ment will be further discussed in Chapter IV. For the present it 
will be assumed that it does measure a form of skill and achievement 
which is a highly desirable product of school training and which 
may be designated reading ability. 

Analysis of Scores 

The scores combined in Table 1 are analyzed in Tables 2 through 6, 
10 through 12 and 17 through 19 for the several grades in the several 
types of schools. The distribution of approximately 2800 children, 
in grades 5 to 8 of 4- teacher elementary schools, is shown in Table 2. 
In Figure 3 are given the percentile graphs for these four grades. 
The median score for the eighth grade is 81 points. The best score 
achieved by any eighth grade pupil in any school is 135 points. 
Eight pupils achieved 120 or higher and nearly twenty percent of all 
eighth grade pupils score above 100. These pupils read well — even 
better than the average of first year high school pupils, as maybe ob- 
served in the table of median scores, page 58, Table 12. Persons 
who reach this mark can read with fair understanding current news- 
papers, periodicals and ordinary books. 

It is obvious, however, that there are large numbers of the eighth 
grade group who cannot read so well. Forty pupils, or about 5 
percent of the total, score as low as the median of the fifth grade and 
one-fourth of all score below 66, or slightly above the median of the 
sixth grade. 

The figures used to express these low achievements do not convey 
any lively picture of the real situation. Concreteness may be given 
by detailed examples of the parts of the test upon which the pupils 
failed. Such a detailed study of the pupils' responses shows that one 
pupil in every seven did not know that "manuscripts convey infor- 
mation." Either he was ignorant of the meaning of one of these 
three words, or he was unable to see the relation of the words when 
combined in the sentence. About one-fourth of all eighth grade 
pupils asserted that, "All laws are enacted with facility." Either 
the words were unknown or the pupils were ignorant of the processes 
of legislation. One in every three pupils did not know that "a 
knave" is "a rascal" and a larger number did not know that "to 
beguile " means " to deceive." Twenty-eight in every hundred denied 

37 



that "Embezzlers practice fraudulent activities, " and twenty-seven 

in every hundred believed that "Imbeciles have high intelligence." 

It need not surprise one if a fourteen-year-old boy does not know 

Table 2. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Four-Teacher Elementary 
Schools. Grades 5-8. Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median 
Score and Median Age for Each Grade 



Score 


Grades 












5 


6 


7 


8 





3 


1 






1-5 


11 


2 






6-10 


14 


4 






11-15 


30 


10 




1 


16-20 


40 


20 


1 


1 


21-25 


47 


20 


4 




26-30 


77 


33 


3 




31-35 


63 


53 


13 


3 


36-40 


74 


57 


25 


12 


41^5 


84 


54 


39 


22 


46-50 


68 


52 


47 


27 


51-55 


54 


62 


28 


35 


56-60 


36 


58 


39 


41 


61-65 


29 


58 


37 


60 


66-70 


29 


50 


54 


67 


71-75 


29 


44 


61 


65 


76-80 


23 


31 


49 


77 


81-85 


7 


35 


42 


75 


86-90 


7 


20 


39 


67 


91-95 


5 


15 


39 


77 


96-100 


7 


13 


20 


54 


101-105 


1 


5 


7 


46 


106-110 




5 


7 


34 


111-115 




7 


11 


22 


116-120 


1 


2 


5 


20 


121-125 






1 


5 


126-130 








2 


131-135 








1 


Total 


739 


711 


571 


814 


Median score . . 


42 


55 


71 


81 


Median age . . . 


11.7 


12.6 


13.5 


14.3 



38 



the meaning of " implacable, " "assiduity" or " bantering," but 
"adjusted," "liberated" and "courtesy" should certainly be in- 
stantly understood by any upper grade pupil who sees them. Simi- 



•i 

!> 



10 20 30 40 50 60 



70 



80 90 100% 



Figure 3. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Four-teacher elementary schools. 
Grades 5-8. Percentile graph of scores by grades 

39 



larly, he should know that "Loud boastings give offense," that 
"Magnanimous persons are not destructive," and that "An officer 



Table 3. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Three-Teacher Schools. Grades 
5-8. Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and Median 
Age for Each Grade 







Grades 




Score 






rr* , 1 










1 otal 


i 




6 


7 


8 













1-5 


1 






'. 1 


6-10 


3 






3 


11-15 


2 






2 


16-20 


3 


1 




4 


21-25 


7 


2 




9 


26-30 1 


1 


5 


2 


18 


31-35 1 


5 


1 


3 


19 


36-40 1 


1 


2 


4 


1 18 


41-45 1 


7 


4 


3 


3 27" 


46-50 1 





9 


4 


6 29 


51-55 


6 




6 


4 16 


56-60 


3 


"l 


2 


1 13 


61-65 


6 


2 


5 


6 19 


66-70 


5 


2 


7 


3 17 


71-75 






5 


3 8 


76-80 


1 


1 


2 


3 7 


81-85 


2 


3 


1 


4 10 


86-90 






1 


5 6 


91-95 


1 






3 4 


96-100 


1 


1 


"l 


1 5 


101-105 








3 3 


106-110 










111-115 




1 


1 


1 3 


116-120 






1 


1 2 


121-125 










126-130 










131-135 










136-140 










Total 10 


5 


41 


49 t 


18 243 


Median score ... 4C 


.4 


49 


61.5 1 


1 49.5 


Median age 11 


.9 


11.9 


13.6 1' 


L6 



40 



may arrest a vagrant youth." Further, he should understand when 
an author says "He slipped away from the blaze and bustle of the 
station down the gloom and silence of the broad canal, " and further 
reinforces this idea by such expressions as " dark waters, " " here and 



Table 4. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Two-Teacher Schools. Grades 
5-8. Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and Median 
Age for Each Grade 







Grades 






Score 








Total 














5 


6 


7 2 


$ 

















1-5 


1 


1 






2 


6-10 


5 








5 


11-15 


9 








9 


16-20 


9 


1 


1 




11 


21-25 1 





2 


2 




14 


26-30 1 


9 


7 


3 




29 


31-35 1 





5 


2 


2 


19 


36-40 


8 


5 


5 


1 


19 


41-45 


7 


8 


8 


5 


28 


46-50 


4 


6 


2 


2 


14 


51-55 


3 


9 


13 


4 


29 


56-60 


1 


6 


6 


3 


16 


61-65 


2 


8 


2 


4 


16 


66-70 


1 


3 


6 


4 


14 


71-75 


1 


3 


2 


5 


11 


76-80 




1 


1 


3 


5 


81-85 






2 


6 


8 


86-90 






3 


2 


5 


91-95 






1 


4 


5 


96-100 




1 


1 


6 


8 


101-105 






1 




1 


106-110 








i ' 


1 


111-115 








l 


1 


116-120 












121-125 












Total 9 





66 


61 5 


3 


270 






Median score ... 2 


8.9 


49.3 


53.9 7 


2.5 


45.8 


Median age 1 


1.7 


12.7 


13.9 1 


4.4 





41 



there a lamp" and "uncertain glimmer" that he is not describing a 
"very light" scene. 

Table 5 . — Reading : Sigma 3 , Form B . One-Teacher Elementary Schools . 
Grades 5-8. Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and 
Median Age for Each Grade 





Grades 


Score 












5 


6 


7 


8 







2 






1-5 


14 


1 






6-10 


22 


5 


"l 




11-15 


37 


15 


3 




16-20 


48 


24 


6 


3 


21-25 


56 


34 


7 


1 


26-30 


64 


42 


12 


1 


31-35 


59 


45 


20 


8 


36-40 


55 


57 


19 


20 


41-45 


41 


48 


35 


9 


46-50 


27 


40 


37 


18 


51-55 


30 


34 


28 


22 


56-60 


13 


35 


35 


31 


61-65 


11 


24 


24 


35 


66-70 


6 


13 


25 


23 


71-75 


2 


17 


10 


30 


76-80 


4 


7 


18 


29 


81-85 


1 


3 


12 


27 


86-90 


1 


6 


11 


13 


91-95 


1 


4 


6 


9 


96-100 


1 


2 


11 


3 


101-105 




3 


2 


5 


106-110 




2 


5 


3 


111-115 








2 


116-120 




1 


"l 




121-125 






1 


i 


Total 


493 


464 


331 


293 






Median score 


32 


42 


55 


66 


Median age 


11.9 


12.3 


13.4 


14.4 



He should know when an author describes his "niece" as "under 
twenty" and "a housekeeper past forty" that the niece is younger 



42 



than the housekeeper; and that when an author says, "The basis 
of our political systems is the right of the people to make and to 




100% 

Figure 4.— Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. One-teacher elementary schools. 
Grades 5-8. Percentile graph of scores by grades 



alter their constitution of government/ ' that he does not assert 
that, "The people have no right to change the constitution of their 



government. 



43 



Yet errors of the type implied are so frequent that the only fair 
conclusion from the results of the tests is that the reading ability 
of the eighth grade pupils is much below what it should be. Similar 
details could be multiplied at length but these are sufficient to show 
the character of the errors which are responsible for the low scores. 
The number of pupils who are able to interpret properly the 
straightforward English prose of Dickens, Eliot, Howells, Scott and 
Washington is astonishingly small. Fifty-seven percent of the 
eighth grade pupils failed to give correct answers to questions based 
on Washington's Farewell Address. 

It should be kept in mind that the scores under discussion are for 
children in the final months of their elementary school course. 
There is little likelihood that they will at all improve in reading 
ability unless they go on to high school the following year. For all 
pupils who do not go on to high school the scores made in this read- 
ing test represent the maximum they will achieve in school. In 
consonance with the laws of forgetting, there is fair certainty that 
these abilities will deteriorate when the children are no longer in 
school and in daily contact with books. 

That these eighth grade scores represent a fairly correct picture of 
the reading achievements of the elementary schools is evident from 
an examination of the lower grade scores as given in Table 2 and the 
percentile graphs in Figure 3. Each successive lower grade is corre- 
spondingly lower than that of the grade above. Grade seven is ten 
points below grade eight, grade six is sixteen points below grade 
seven and grade five is thirteen points lower still. This latter score 
means that in general the average fifth grade pupil could mark 
correctly 20 of the 50 words in the vocabulary test, 15 of the 40 
sentences and 10 of the 28 paragraph questions. 

The Smaller Rural Schools 
The foregoing figures are primarily for the larger rural schools, 
i. e., elementary schools having four or more teachers. In general, 
these schools are superior in reading achievement to the smaller 
schools, as may be seen by referring to Table 6. The eighth grade 
pupils in the one-teacher schools, of which the State of New York 
has such a large number, read less well than do the seventh grade 

44 



pupils in the larger schools. The number of these eighth grade 
pupils is not large — only 293 in all. They are, however, all the pupils 
found in grade 8 of the one-teacher schools in all the supervisory dis- 
tricts on the day the examinations were given. This median score 
must, therefore, be taken as the correct measure of reading achieve- 
ment in schools of this type. 



Table 6. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. One-, Two-, Three-, and Four- 
Teacher Elementary Schools in All Counties. Four-Teacher 
Schools Include All Schools With Four or More Teachers. Median 
Scores and Median Ages for Grades 5-8 





Grades 


Types of schools 


5 


6 


7 


8 




Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


One-teacher. . . 


31.5 




41.7 




55.3 




65.8 




Two-teacher 


28^9 


11.9 


49J 


12.3 


53^9 


13.4 


72^5 


14.4 


Three- teacher 


4(X4 


11.7 


49 


12.7 


65^5 


13.9 


7l' 


14.4 


Four- teacher. 


4L6 


11.9 


55' 


11.9 


70^5 


13.6 


80> 


14.6 






11.7 




12.6 




13.5 




14.3 


Norm 


31 


50 


68 


76 





















The superiority of the larger schools is constant, the difference 
being about equivalent to the progress which New York pupils 
make in one year of schooling. In Table 6, showing only the medians 
for the two types of schools, it is apparent that sixth grade achieve- 
ment of the smaller schools is about equal to fifth grade achievement 
in the larger schools and so on throughout the upper grades. 



45 



jcone 
130 



120 
110 
100 
90 
80 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
10 





















/ 




















/ 
/ / 


















/ 


/ i 


















h 
































a 


& 


'/ 

^ 


/ 












& 


'A 




w* 












/ 


^ 


yp- 












1 


/ 


r 
















/ 




















/ 




















f 









































10 20 30 40 50 60 70 &0 SO 1007. 

Figure 5.— Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. One-teacher elementary schools, 
Grade 8; and four-teacher elementary schools, Grade 7. Percentile graph 



Elimination in Smaller Schools 

The disadvantage of the smaller schools is aggravated by the fact 
of greater elimination of pupils in these schools. The age-grade dis- 
tributions for the elementary schools examined in the survey are 

4 6 



given in Tables 7-8. More than nine thousand pupils are repre- 
sented in these tables, about 40 percent of whom are in the one- 
teacher schools. The median ages for the two groups of schools 









































it 
if 






































Si 




















s i 
/ 


















/ 
/ 


/ 








.4 


# 






S 


/ 










y 


<&& 


^' 


S 

S 
































• 


















// 


f 


















// 





























































10 



20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100°/, 



Figure 6. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. One- teacher elementary schools, 
Grade 8; and four-teacher elementary schools, Grade 8. Percentile graph 



47 



which are given in Table 9 show almost no variation from one type 
of school to the other, the difference usually being less than two 

Score 
65 



00 

15 

TO 

65 

60 

55 

50 

45 

40 

55 

50, 



) _.. 




^ 










> 


/ 




/ 

/ 

/ 




Fbi 


/ 

r Room / 
/ 
/ 






/ 
/ 

/ 




/ 
/ 
/ 

/ 






/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 


/ Onz Roo 


n 


/ 
/ 



















Grades 



a 



Figure 7. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. One- and four-teacher elementary 
schools. Grades 5-8. Median scores by grades 

48 



months. Almost invariably, however, the difference, slight as it is, 
is in favor of the larger schools. In elimination, the two types of 
schools differ radically. The larger schools have 778 pupils in the 
first grade and maintain approximately this number up to the end 
of the sixth grade. Even near the end of grade 7 there are 80 per- 
cent as many pupils in that grade as were found in grade 1 and the 



Table 7.— Age-Grade Distribution of All Pupils Tested in Four-Teacher 
Schools in Certain Supervisory Districts. Also Median Ages Per 
Grade and Percent Each Grade Enrolment is of Enrolment in 
Grade 1 



Age 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


4 


















5 


49 


















6 


300 


39 


1 














7 


243 


182 


42 


2 












8 


129 


232 


233 


31 


1 










9 


32 


125 


248 


216 


36 










10 


16 


55 


120 


230 


171 


29 


6 






11 


5 


15 


55 


151 


200 


206 


25 


2 


12 


2 


4 


24 


72 


125 


249 


169 


55 


13 


2 


7 


11 


51 


83 


143 


181 


197 


14 




1 


2 


18 


45 


90 


157 


256 


15 






3 


5 


5 


34 


72 


131 


16 






1 


1 


1 


9 


12 


51 


17 






1 






1 


1 


14 


18 
















4 


Total 


778 


660 


741 


777 


667 


761 


623 


710 






Median age 


7.2 


8.5 


9.4 


10.6 


11.6 


12.5 


13.6 


14.3 


Percent 


100 


84.7 


95 


99.8 


85.7 


97.8 


80 


91 



eighth grade number is 91 percent of this first grade enrolment. On 
the other hand, the one-teacher schools have only 49 percent as 
many pupils in the seventh grade as in the first, and in the eighth, 
only 43 percent as many. To put the matter differently, the larger 
schools show a larger percentage of retention in the eighth grade than 
do the smaller schools up to the end of the sixth grade. The holding 

4 49 



power of the larger schools is, apparently, very much greater. It 
would appear, therefore, that a large number of pupils dropped out 
of the one-teacher schools, 28 percent in fact, with only sixth grade 
schooling. For these pupils the median score in the reading test is 
only 42 points, which is the median achievement of fifth grade pupils 



Table 8.— Age-Grade Distribution of All Pupils Tested in One-Teacher 
Schools in Certain Supervisory Districts. Also Median Ages Per 
Grade and Percent Each Grade Enrolment is of Enrolment in 
Grade 1 



Age 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


4 


1 
















5 


58 


2 














6 


215 


39 


3 












7 


185 


150 


24 


3 










8 


150 


199 


140 


43 


2 


1 






9 


43 


128 


162 


134 


33 


4 






10 


17 


57 


120 


153 


85 


31 


4 


2 


11 


5 


13 


42 


105 


123 


110 


27 


10 


12 


1 


9 


19 


56 


118 


159 


83 


27 


13 


2 


2 


16 


26 


53 


89 


106 


74 


14 


2 


1 


5 


18 


37 


61 


68 


97 


15 






1 


3 


15 


30 


43 


58 


16 


1 






2 


2 


2 


2 


20 


17 










1 




1 


5 


18 










1 




1 




19 


















Total 


680 


600 


532 


543 


470 


487 


335 


293 






Median age 


7.4 


8.5 


9.6 


10.6 


11.9 


12.6 


13.5 


14.3 


Percent 


100 


88.2 


78.2 


79.8 


69.1 


71.6 


49 


43 



in the larger schools. It is within the facts to say that pupils who 
leave school with no better achievements than this will add greatly 
to the problem of near-illiteracy which the state confronts. 

Two limitations upon the severity of these interpretations should 
be observed. In the first place, these age-grade tables are based 
upon the pupils who took the tests and these pupils are the ones who 

50 



happened to be in school on the day when the tests were given. 
Total figures for the year might have given somewhat different 
results. There is no obvious reason, however, why one class of 
schools would have been affected differently from another in this 
respect. 

Table 9. — Ages: Median Ages for 3940 Pupils in One-Teacher Rural 
Schools and 5717 Pupils in Four- and More-Teacher Schools. Only 
Pupils Examined by Tests Are Included. Seven Years Interpreted 
as Seven Years, No Months to Seven Years, Eleven Months 





I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


One room 

Four room 


7.4 
7.2 


8.5 
8.5 


9.6 
9.4 


10.6 
10.6 


11.9 
11.6 


12.6 
12.5 


13.5 
13.6 


14.3 
14.3 



The second point which must be considered is more important. 
It is a fact that some of the upper grades in larger schools were in- 
creased in size by the transfer of pupils from the smaller schools. 
Such transfer, while increasing the size of these eighth grades in the 
larger schools, would, at the same time, act unfavorably on the 
smaller schools by decreasing their numbers. 



How Well Should Children Read? 
The desirable standard of reading achievement for any level of 
school advancement is determined in part by the difficulty of the 
printed material to be found in school text books for that grade of 
advancement. As pupils pass into the upper grades, books are used 
more and more for the purpose of gaining information, and in the 
upper grammar grades the acquisition of certain specified forms of 
information becomes an end in itself. It all too often happens that 
in the upper grades teachers become so interested in the matter of 
information itself that little attention is given to increasing the 
pupil's ability to use the tools by which such information may be 
acquired. Reading as an end in itself becomes generally a matter of 
secondary consideration in grades seven and eight where stress is 
laid upon history, geography, mathematics, literature and science. 
It also often happens that the power to read books lags consider- 

5i 



ably behind the acquisition of information itself, so that children are 
more or less bewildered by the text books which are put into their 
hands and which they are expected to use. Inability to read printed 
books often results in slow progress and failure for large numbers of 
children in these upper grades. Some of this slow progress and 
failure might be avoided if definite attention were given to increas- 
ing the pupil's skill in the reading of straightforward English prose. 
Some conception of the general reading difficulties which children 
encounter in the upper grades may be gleaned from quotations taken 
from text books designed for these grades. 

" When the sun's rays are vertical at any point on a meridian, it is 
noon at all places on that meridian that are then lighted by the sun. 
Since the earth turns from west to east, the sun appears to move 
from east to west. Therefore, when it is noon at any place it is 
before noon or earlier at all places west, because the sun has not 
yet reached the meridians of those places. It is after noon, or later, 
at all places east, because the sun has already crossed the meridians 
of those places." 

"A New York banker shipped $48,665 in gold to London to settle 
an account amounting to £10,000. He paid }i% freight and yi% 
for insurance. There was a loss of He% by abrasion on $20,000 in 
$20 gold pieces, of y&% on $20,000 in $10 gold pieces, and of %% on 
the $5 gold pieces, which constituted the remainder of the shipment. 
What was the total cost to the banker, including the sum paid to 
replace the loss by abrasion?" 

"The question of the re-election of Douglas to the Senate now 
came before the people of Illinois. Abraham Lincoln stepped for- 
ward to contest the election with him. 'A house divided against 
itself cannot stand,' said Lincoln. ' This government cannot endure 
half slave and half free. * * * It will become all one thing or all 
the other.' He challenged Douglas to debate the issues with him 
before the people, and Douglas accepted the challenge. Seven joint 
debates were held in the presence of immense crowds. Lincoln 
forced Douglas to defend the doctrine of 'popular sovereignty.' 
This Douglas did by declaring that the legislatures of the territories 
could make laws hostile to slavery. This idea, of course, was 
opposed to the Dred Scott decision. Douglas won the election and 

52 



was returned to the Senate. But Lincoln had made a national 
reputation." 

"The glacier also had an important influence upon our manu- 
facturing. Its load of rock fragments often filled parts of valleys so 
that after the ice was gone, the streams were compelled to seek new 
courses. These courses often lay down slopes or across buried ledges, 
over which the water tumbled in a succession of rapids and falls. 
Even the great cataract of Niagara was caused in this way and the 
same is true of many of the falls and rapids of hilly New England 
and New York. The many lakes act as storehouses to keep the 
noisy falls and rapids well supplied with water. For these reasons 
New England and New York have such abundant water power that 
they early grew to be the greatest manufacturing centers of the 
Union. In sections of the country not reached by the glacier, rapids 
and falls are much less common. Did the glacier cover the land on 
which you live?" 

"In humid regions, whirlwinds do not usually appear to extend 
up to any considerable height; but in desert regions they may reach 
heights of 1,000 feet or more, as shown by the columns of dust. 
The rise is sometimes so great that the air is expanded and cooled 
enough to cause condensation of even the small amount of moisture 
contained in the desert air. Smart showers may then occur. 
Showers of this sort are likely to be of short duration, but the rain- 
fall may be very heavy. If exceptionally heavy, such rains are 
known as cloudbursts. In such a storm, in the summer of 1898, rain 
enough fell in a few minutes, in the vicinity of Bagdad, in the 
Mojave Desert of California, to occasion serious washouts along the 
railroad for miles. A cloudburst at Clifton, S. C, June 6, 1903, 
caused the loss of more than 50 lives, and property damage to the 
estimated extent of $3,500,000. In desert regions, the water which 
starts to fall from the rising and expanding air is sometimes evap- 
orated before it reaches the ground. Such ' suspended ' showers may 
be seen often in Arizona in August." 

To be sure it may be argued that text books containing such selec- 
tions as these here quoted are too difficult for children in these upper 
grades. In general, however, they are not more difficult than the 
books and magazines which children will need to read out of school. 

53 



Reading Achievement of High School Students 
When students enter high school they are confronted by books 
containing, for the most part, ideas to which they are unaccus- 



Table 10. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Four- or More-Teacher High 
Schools. Grades 9-12. Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median 
Score and Median Age for Each Grade 







Grades 




Score 












9 


10 


11 


12 


36-40 


3 








41-45 


1 








46-50 


3 


1 


1 




51-55 


9 


1 




1 


56-60 


10 


2 






61-65 


11 


2 


3 




66-70 


18 


5 






71-75 


33 


12 


*3 




76-80 


35 


11 


6 


1 


81-85 


30 


21 


5 


3 


86-90 


43 


17 


7 


3 


91-95 


57 


28 


10 


8 


96-100 


57 


21 


14 


9 


101-105 


37 


31 


18 


6 


106-110 


37 


26 


22 


20 


111-115 


33 


29 


20 


19 


116-120 


30 


29 


31 


20 


121-125 


16 


15 


16 


19 


126-130 


7 


9 


14 


20 


131-135 


2 


7 


10 


17 


136-140 


3 


3 


2 


9 


141-145 








1 


146-150 








1 


Total 


475 


270 


182 


157 






Median score 


95 


103 


112 


118 


Median age 


15.1 


16.3 


17.2 


17.8 



tomed, written in a language generally more difficult than that of 
their grade text books. The difficulty of the new subject is increased 



54 



by whatever strangeness and difficulty attaches to the vocabulary in 
which these texts are written. Contrary to general assumption, the 
average eighth grade graduate is not sufficiently conversant with the 

Score 
160 

150 

140 

130 

120 

110 

100 

90 

80 

10 

60 

50 

40 

30 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 

Figure 8. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Large high schools. Grades 9-12. 
Percentile graph of scores by grades 



























































































1 

1 




















1 


-)y^ 


















' < 


l^^ 1 



































































































































elements of the English language to make the reading of high school 
texts either easy or pleasurable. Instead, he confronts the task of 

55 



"learning to read" and the teacher of high school science, of high 
school mathematics, or of literature becomes inevitably a teacher of 

Table 11.— Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Fewer Than Four-Teacher High 
Schools. Grades 9-12. Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median 
Score and Median Age for Each Grade 







Grades 




Score 












9 


10 


11 1 


2 


31-35 






2 




36-40 










41-45 


"l 








46-50 


3 








51-55 


6 








56-60 


6 


"l 






61-65 




2 






66-70 


17 








71-75 


15 


i 






76-80 


16 


l 


*3 '. 




81-85 


16 


6 


3 


i 


86-90 


18 


7 


5 


2 


91-95 


17 


7 


6 


3 


96-100 


12 


10 


3 


1 


101-105 


15 


10 


5 


6 


106-110 


16 


7 


9 


7 


111-115 


7 


11 


7 1 





116-120 


6 


8 


6 


4 


121-125 


4 


7 


5 


1 


126-130 


3 


5 


5 


3 


131-135 


1 


1 


3 


4 


136-140 




1 


2 


1 


141-145 










146-150 










Total 


180 


86 


70 4 


3 






Median score 


90 


105 


107 11 


2 


Median age 


15.4 


15.9 


17.1 17 


.9 



reading. How true this statement is may be evident on examination 
of the results of the Sigma 3 reading test in New York high schools. 

56 



Half of all high school pupils did not know accurately the meaning 
of "patriarch," "dexterity," "intrigue," "implacable" or "ani- 
mosity." One-fourth failed to mark correctly the proper definitions 
of "conflagration," "obstacles," "harbinger," "sublime," "noc- 
turnal" or "spherical." An equal proportion asserted that "grim 

Score 
140 



130 



120 



no 



100 



90 



70 



60 



50 



30 



















S 


J, 














4 


''4 

yy 














%~- 


-t^ 




A 


/ 




4 


>*" 




^ 


9f 










/ 


/ 


y// 


-/ 




9X" 


s 

s 










S 4 

/ 


y 




« 












/ 


A- 


/ 


y 
















</ 


















// 




















// 




















/ 





















10 



20 



30 



40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 

Figure 9. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Small high schools. Grades 9-12. 
Percentile graph of scores by grades 

determination invariably brings about reconciliation" and that 
"despots invest subordinates with great authority"; while one in 
every ten believed that "petty larceny is conducive to good repute " ; 
that "citron is found in craters," and that "good citizens are in- 
sensible to progress." 

57 



Those students who remain on to the 12th grade, and graduate, do 
acquire facility in reading. The median score for this group is 118 
points (see Table 10), with but few students making decidedly low 
scores. In general, this means that a high school senior will know 
42 of the fifty words, understand 33 of the forty sentences and will 
answer correctly 22 of the 28 questions on the paragraphs. 

Persons who can achieve these scores under the time limitations of 
the test have a good reading command of printed English as the 
average person meets it in papers, magazines, and books. Only 
about one-fourth of the pupils who enter the high school remain to 
the end of the senior year. As freshmen they have an achievement 



Table 12. — Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Small and Large High Schools. 
Small High Schools Include Those Having Fewer Than 4 Teachers; 
Large, Those Having 4 or More Teachers. Median Scores and 
Median Ages in Grades 9-12 







Grades 




9 


10 


11 


12 


Small High Schools < 
Large High Schools < 


Score 

Age 

Score 

Age 


90 

15.4 
94.6 

15.1 


104.5 

15.9 
103 

16.3 


107.1 

17.1 
111.5 

17.2 


111.7 

17.9 
118 

17.8 


Form A 




84 


90 


96 


102 







of 95, which interpreted means that they know thirty- two of the 
fifty words, 26 of the forty sentences and 18 of the paragraph 
questions. 

These figures are for the larger high schools. The results for the 
smaller high schools are in general inferior, as the figures of Table 1 1 
show. 

Too much stress should not be put upon comparative scores. It 
would be easy to find schools where the reading achievement of high 
school pupils is less than that of the New York schools, and among 
the schools examined there are some with enviable high records. 

58 



There can be little doubt, however, that the reading abilities of high 
school pupils in New York, as elsewhere, are much below the 
margin of adequacy required by the exigencies of practical life. 



Score 
120 



110 



100 



90 





/ 


s 

y 
s 
s 

y 
y 
s 
y 
y ^S 


// 


s 
s 

s 
y 
y^^~—~ 

- — *y 

s 

> 




#7 

/ 













10 n 

Grades 



\i 



Figure 10.— Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Fewer than four-teacher and four or 
more teacher schools. Grades 9-12. Median scores by grades 

59 



Primary Reading 

The teaching of reading is almost the whole instructional problem 
of the first grade of the elementary school; it occupies a major por- 
tion of the time both of teachers and of pupils in the second and third 
grades, and it bulks large in the curriculum of even the fourth and 
fifth grades. It is true, therefore, that a school which succeeds in 
teaching its primary pupils to read has a major claim to be counted 
efficient. It is also true that no achievement in other lines, however 
important, can compensate for failure in this work. If it were 
possible, therefore, to give an accurate measure of the ability of 
pupils to read at the end of the first, second, or third grades, we 
should have at once a crucial test of the educational efficiency of a 
school. Such a complete test of reading ability is too complex for 
the time allowed in the course of a school survey. Certain phases of 
reading ability may be tested, and in the absence of other evidence 
of successful teaching in these grades the results may be used as the 
measure of the work of these grades. 

For the measurement of reading achievement in the first four 
grades in the elementary school in the New York Survey, a reading 
examination requiring in all about thirty minutes of the pupil's 
time was used. This examination was devised by the writer and 
Dr. Margaret Noonan for the Virginia Survey. It is described in 
Part 2 of the Survey Report, 1 and in a Manual of Directions 2 sub- 
sequently issued by the World Book Company. The examination, 
designated Sigma 1, is composed of two tests: 

' ' Test 1 is a sentence and paragraph reading test. Accompany- 
ing the sentences and paragraphs are pictures. In each case 
there is a direction for the pupils to make some mark upon the 
picture. This is the only response of the pupil. Whether or not 
the pupil is able to read the sentence is measured by the kind of 
marks which he makes on the picture. He is not required to do 
any writing. The items of the test — twenty-five in number — are 
arranged in order of difficulty, the easiest one being placed first 
and the succeeding ones being more difficult. In the construction 
of the test, careful attention was given to selecting only those 

1 Virginia Public Schools, Part 2, pp. 45, ff. 

2 Haggerty Reading Examination, Manual of Directions for Sigma 1 and 
Sigma 3, World Book Company, 1921. 

6o 




words which were found in the primers and first-grade readers. 
Presumably an intelligent child who had had proper instruction 
in primary reading should be able to make a score on the easier 
parts of the test. As he proceeds through the tests, however, the 
items become more difficult, and towards the end only third- 
grade children will be able to read and respond properly to the 
directions. The test is given principally as a ' power ' test, not as a 
speed test — twenty minutes in time being allowed, which is more 
than most first and second or even third-grade children will be 
able to use." 

The first line of Test 1 which was 



1. Put a tail on this pig. 

The successive lines increased in difficulty up to paragraphs like 
the following: 

{Read this paragraph and then do what it says to do. Read it 

again if you need to.) 

"But we are anxious to see the inside of this wonderful craft; 
so, after a few minutes in the turret, we go down the narrow 
hatchway into the boat itself. Here we are immediately struck 
by the amount of machinery everywhere and the neatness and 
compactness of everything. Behind the living room is the engine 
room. Here are two heavy oil engines for driving the boat on the 
surface, and a powerful motor for use when the boat is submerged. 
In another compartment there are storage batteries for supplying 
the electric current for the motors, lights, and cooking appara- 
tus." 

24. Draw a line under the one of these three words 

that shows what is described in this paragraph. sailboat 

aeroplane 
submarine 

25. Draw a line under the one of these three words 

that best shows the amount of machinery to little 
be seen. much 

none 

"This test is preceded by a fore-exercise which is given as a 

lesson in which the pupils are instructed exactly how to perform 

the various things called for later in the test. Adequate attention 

is given to this fore-exercise, so that presumably every child of 

6i 



normal intelligence should be able to follow the directions in the 
test proper. This test with its fore-exercise occupies seven pages 
of an eight-page booklet. 

"Page eight of this booklet contains test 2, which also is a 
sentence reading test modeled after the so-called 'D evens 
Literacy' test. This test consists of twenty interrogative sen- 
tences arranged in order of difficulty. It is preceded by a fore- 
exercise which, as in the case of test 1, is taught to the pupils 
before the test proper is given. The only response called for on 
the part of the child is to make a line under one of two words, 
'Yes' or 'No, ' whichever may be the correct answer to the ques- 
tion asked. The time allowed for this test is two minutes." 

The Sigma 1 test has been widely used throughout the country 
for the measurement of reading achievement in the lower grades, 
both in large city schools and in smaller places, and in one-room 
rural schools. In the survey of the North Carolina schools about 
two thousand children were tested. For comparative purposes, 
therefore, there are available, not only the "norms," which were 
based on results in good city schools in the northern states, but other 
median scores from schools of various types in a number of states 
throughout the country. 

Primary Reading Results 

The results of the Sigma 1 test in grades 1 to 4 are given in tables 
14 to 15 for the larger and smaller schools separately. The median 
scores for the two types of schools are given in Table 13, where are 
also given the scores for North Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin. 
Both urban and rural schools are represented in these comparative 
scores. A graphic picture of these scores is given in Figure 11. 

In comparison with North Carolina and Virginia schools the New 
York scores are slightly lower. Virginia rural pupils in grade 1, 
with a median age of 7.5 years score 3.5 points, whereas New York 
first grades, slightly younger, score less than 3 points. Too much 
weight cannot be attached to these scores since from their smallness 
it is evident that the test is too difficult for the first grade. The per- 
centage of zero scores is excessive. The same restriction cannot 
apply, however, to grade 2, where the percentage of zero scores is 
less than 6, and where the median score is sufficiently large for valid 

62 



measurement. For this grade the New York scores, even for the 
larger schools, is distinctly below that for any group represented in 
Table 13. The rural Virginia schools and the rural North Carolina 



Table 13. — Reading Examination, Sigma 1, One- and Four-Teacher 
Schools in All Counties. Four-Teacher Schools Include All Larger 
Schools. Median Scores and Median Ages for Grades 1-4. Median 
Scores for Other Schools 







Grades 


Schools 


1 


2 


3 


4 




Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 




One- teacher 


2 




9.5 




22.6 




29.2 




New York 


Four-teacher 


2.4 


7.3 


127 


8.5 


26.7 


9.6 


34.3 


10.6 




Richmond 




7.1 




8.4 




9.4 




10.6 




4.1 




17.9 




29.1 














7.6 




8.8 




97 






Virginia < 


Norfolk 

Rural 

Kindergarten 


6 

3^5 
1L7 


7.1 

7.5 


18 
145 

23.4 


8.3 
8.6 


29 
267 

33A 


9.1 
9.8 






Wisconsin. 


group 

Non-kindergar- 
ten group 

Raleigh 


9.6 

2.8 




20 
17.8 




357 
327 








North Carolina • 


Four-teacher 
schools in 4 
counties 






14 




26.1 




27 




Kansas City. . < 








18 


8.9 


30 


9.6 








Beaumont .... 










30 


9.6 










Bright pupils 


14.5 


7.0 
















Cleveland. . . . • 


Medium pupils 
Slow pupils 


8.3 
4.0 


7.2 
7.1 
















Norms 


6 




20 




30 




38 







schools score 14.5 and 14 points respectively, while the New York 
score is 12.7 points. As compared with Richmond, Norfolk, Raleigh, 
or either of the two Wisconsin groups, the deficiency is still greater, 
and greatest when compared with the standard norm. The latter 

63 



is derived from examinations given to pupils in St. Louis, Madison, 
Bloomington, Minneapolis, and Santa Anna. In terms of this 
standard norm the New York schools in grades 2,3, and 4, are about 



Score 




Grades 



Figure 11. — Reading examination, Sigma 1. One- and four- teacher schools in 
all counties. Grades 1-4. Median scores by grades 

64 



one-half year behind where they should be. The matter may be put 
in another way. About 23 percent of the New York pupils in 
grade 2 reach this standard. For grades 3 and 4, respectively, the 
figures are 27 and 23 percent respectively. In other words, about 
77 percent of the 5000 pupils represented in Tables 14-15 read 
less well than their grade advancement would indicate is desir- 
able. 



Table 14.— Reading: Sigma 1. Four-Teacher Schools. Grades 1-4. 
Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and Age for Each 
Grade 







Grades 


















1 


2 


3 


4 







209 


28 


4 




241 


1-5 


330 


170 


20 


3 


523 


6-10 


89 


109 


46 


9 


253 


11-15 


47 


109 


75 


20 


251 


16-20 


26 


100 


110 


37 


273 


21-25 


8 


86 


133 


74 


301 


26-30 


8 


47 


180 


109 


344 


31-35 


3 


23 


108 


170 


304 


36-40 




10 


82 


191 


283 


41-45 






33 


112 


145 


46-50 












51-55 












Totals 


720 


682 


791 


725 


2918 






Median score . . . 


2 


13 


26 


34 


19.5 


Median age 


7.1 


8.4 


9.4 


10.6 





There are individual New York schools which equal and even 
exceed the standard norm. Cherry Valley, for instance, has a 
median achievement for grade 2 of 24.5 points, Rye number 1 has 
26, Rye number 2, 21, and Rose 28.5 points. But in another school 
eighteen of the 22 pupils score between zero and 5, in still another 
school 25 of the 43 pupils have this low performance, and in one 
5 65 



county the entire group of second graders in one-teacher schools — 
more than 100 pupils — have a median score of only 9.1 points. 

Inasmuch as the first grade pupils score less than 3 points it may 
be pertinent to show just what this means in the concrete. 

There are just twelve words aside from "a" and "the" which the 
child must know in order to read the three sentences required for a 

Score 



40 










































35 

30 










i 




















































25 












L**^ 






























20 
15 


















































. 


i ^y^ 










30 
5 



















































-J-—-" 











10 



20 



30 40 50 60 70 &0 90 100% 



Figure 12.— Reading examination, Sigma 1. Four-teacher schools. Grades 
1-4. Percentile graph 



score of 3. Five of these words are actually taught him during the 
fore-exercises on page 1 of the test. He must be able to recognize 



just seven additional words as follows: "tail," "this, 



Pig, 



" around," "squirrel," "wing," "goose." All these words are in the 
Jones list of words common to ten primers and all of them are found 
in the first readers used in the New York schools. To acquire a 
knowledge of these words, to understand them when they are seen 

66 



in sentences, and to follow the directions which they give, seems 
a small achievement for one year of schooling. Yet more than fifty 



Table 15. — Reading: Sigma 1. One-Teacher Schools. Grades 1-4. 
Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and Age for Each 
Grade 







Grades 






Score 








Totals 












1 


2 


3 


4 







218 


35 


2 




255 


1-5 


368 


168 


22 


5 


563 


6-10 


65 


135 


40 


9 


249 


11-15 


27 


88 


71 


21 


207 


16-20 


5 


75 


87 


65 


232 


21-25 


1 


63 


112 


94 


270 


26-30 




27 


94 


127 


248 


31-35 




11 


51 


115 


177 


36-40 




1 


28 


91 


120 


41-45 






7 


24 


31 


46-50 












51-55 












Totals 


684 


603 


514 


551 


2352 


Median score . . . 


2 


10 


23 


29.2 


14 


Median age 


7.3 


8.5 


9.6 


10.6 





Table 16. — Reading: Sigma 1. One-Teacher and Four or More Teacher 
Schools. Percent of Pupils Making Standard Norm in Grades 1, 2, 
3, and 4 



School 


Grades 


Average 


1 


2 


3 


4 


One-teacher 

Four-teacher 

All 


14 
25 
20 


19 
27 
23 


19 

33 
27 


13 
31 
23 


14 
29 
23 



67 



percent of the New York first-grade children tested could not equal 
a score of 3. 

Even this is not quite a fair statement of the case. A child was 
not confined to the first three sentences in order to score 3. He 
might fail on sentence 3, if he could read sentence 4 with the words 
"find," "rabbit's," "make," "it," "longer," or if he could read sen- 
tence 5 with the words "each," "bird," "that," "is," and "ground." 




Figure 13. 



-Reading examination, Sigma 1. One-teacher schools. Grades 
1-4. Percentile graph 



It is admitted that the ability to recognize the words in question 
is not the only thing involved. There are the equally important 
factors of the relations of words and of the ability to follow direc- 
tions, the latter certainly being a matter of intelligence. Conceding 
all these matters, however, it is still probable that where reading has 
been well taught, there the pupil will make the highest scores in this 
test. 

68 



Reading Achievement by Ages 
A school grade is a more or less artificial classification of pupils 
for purposes of instruction. Being artificial, it is subject to wide 

Table 17.— Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. Four-Teacher Elementary 
Schools and All High Schools. Grades 5-12. Distribution of Scores 
by Ages. Median Score for Each Age 











Ages 










Totals 


























10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 ] 


8 


19 







1 


1 


2 
















4 


1-5 




2 


2 


6 


"l 


1 










13 


6-10 


"l 


4 


6 


4 


1 


1 










18 


11-15 




9 


13 


9 


7 


1 


1 








40 


16-20 


4 


13 


10 


11 


10 


7 


2 


1 






58 


21-25 


8 


10 


16 


16 


8 


7 


2 








67 


26-30 


20 


23 


17 


24 


17 


11 


1 








113 


31-35 


17 


20 


34 


27 


21 


11 


3 


1 




1 


135 


36-40 


11 


42 


38 


33 


25 


12 


5 


1 






167 


41-45 


19 


37 


44 


32 


35 


15 


15 


3 


1 




201 


46-50 


28 


25 


46 


33 


26 


32 


8 


2 






200 


51-55 


21 


28 


37 


34 


34 


27 


10 


2 


2 




195 


56-60 


15 


36 


25 


34 


38 


25 


11 


6 


3 




193 


61-65 


14 


27 


42 


42 


33 


23 


11 


6 


1 




199 


66-70 


13 


27 


34 


46 


54 


38 


19 


8 


4 


1 


244 


71-75 


11 


36 


31 


53 


48 


42 


28 


5 


4 




258 


76-80 


12 


27 


29 


53 


60 


36 


13 


13 


4 


"l 


249 


81-85 


5 


15 


40 


39 


53 


42 


32 


10 


8 




244 


86-90 


3 


15 


28 


42 


46 


48 


32 


15 


8 


4 


241 


91-95 


6 


8 


41 


35 


56 


36 


35 


15 


7 


6 


245 


96-100 


3 


10 


23 


39 


60 


28 


24 


15 


15 


4 


221 


101-105 




3 


21 


21 


35 


35 


30 


17 


12 


6 


180 


106-110 


"l 


1 


11 


20 


34 


32 


29 


32 


12 




173 


111-115 




3 


11 


27 


31 


27 


24 


31 


10 


7 


171 


116-120 


1 


1 


7 


19 


25 


25 


31 


27 


15 


4 


155 


121-125 






1 


6 


17 


17 


18 


25 


9 


4 


97 


126-130 






2 


3 


6 


11 


15 


17 


7 


5 


66 


131-135 




1 




1 


6 


5 


13 


20 


5 


2 


53 


136-140 








1 


3 


1 


4 


16 


2 


2 


29 


141-145 










2 






7 


1 




10 


146-150 
















1 






1 


Totals 


216 


424 


611 


710 


793 


596 


416 


296 1 


50 


48 


4,240 


Median score .... 


50 


56 


63 


71 


79 


82 


93 


110 1 


)5 


111 





(K) 



variations from school to school. Thus, the median age of fifth 
grade pupils examined in the one-teacher schools of Tompkins 



Table 18.— Reading: Sigma 3. 


One-Teacher Schools 


>. Grades 5-8. 


Distribution of Scores by Ages. 


Median Score for Each Age 




Ages 


Totals 




















1 


[0 11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 













1 
4 


1 
1 








2 


1-5 


2 i 


4 




15 


6-10 


4 8 


3 


4 


5 


3 






1 


28 


11-15 


6 12 


13 


7 


6 


7 




1 




52 


16-20 


9 15 


20 


13 


9 


9 








75 


21-25 


L7 13 


23 


23 


17 


2 








95 


26-30 1 


LI 25 


36 


13 


12 


5 


2 






104 


31-35 1 


.3 27 


41 


21 


12 


13 


2 


i 




130 


36-40 1 


4 27 


49 


25 


17 


5 


3 




i 


141 


41-45 1 


8 21 


33 


35 


22 


16 


6 


2 




153 


46-50 


8 17 


30 


21 


21 


14 


2 


2 


2 


117 


51-55 


9 22 


29 


26 


23 


18 


4 






131 


56-60 


7 16 


23 


24 


24 


18 


4 


4 




120 


61-65 


6 17 


19 


29 


31 


17 


6 






125 


66-70 


2 8 


14 


33 


31 


16 


7 


2 


1 


114 


71-75 


3 5 


11 


36 


17 


15 


8 


2 


1 


98 


76-80 


3 3 


11 


23 


34 


17 


1 




1 


93 


81-85 


2 3 


9 


26 


33 


17 


3 


1 


1 


95 


86-90 


2 4 


13 


23 


27 


9 


5 






83 


91-95 


1 2 


13 


29 


31 


11 


6 


i 






94 


96-100 


4 


6 


10 


24 


4 


1 








49 


101-105 


3 


15 


15 


20 


2 


1 








56 


106-110 


4 


5 


9 


12 


5 










35 


111-115 


1 


3 


6 


6 


2 




1 






19 


116-120 


2 


3 


3 


10 


2 










20 


121-125 




1 




2 












3 


126-130 




2 
















2 


131-135 








i 












1 


136-140 






















Totals L 


57 263 


429 


454 


452 


229 


61 


17 


8 


2,050 






Median score 3' 


r.6 41 


45 


64 


68 


62 


67 


59 















county is 12.6 years; in similar schools of Oswego county the median 
age is 11.5 years. In one four-teacher school in Erie county the 

70 



median age is 10.9 years; in a school of similar type in Westchester 
county the median age is 13 years. These variations occur despite 
the fact that when the ages for all one-teacher schools and all four- 
teacher schools are combined there is a difference between median 
ages of only .3 of a year. 

The median ages of pupils in the several grades of a school might, 
in fact, be taken as a measure of the effectiveness of that school, 
and the median ages of corresponding grades would be a relative 
measure that would indicate relative efficiency of several schools or 
school systems. Such a measure should be carefully correlated with 



Table 19.— Reading: Sigma 3, Form B. One-, Two-, and Three-Teacher 
Elementary Schools. Grades 5-8. Four-Teacher Elementary Schools 
and All High Schools. Grades 5-12. Median Scores by Ages 



School 



One-room elementary schools. 

Grades 5-8 

Two-room elementary schools. 

Grades 5-8 

Three-room elementary schools. 

Grades 5-8 

Four-room elementary schools and 

all high schools 



Ages 



10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


38 


42 


45 


67 


68 


62 


67 


59 


66 




29 


37 


54 


45 


46 


61 










48 


41 


48 


54 


57 


51 


46 








56 


56 


63 


71 


79 


82 


93 


110 


105 


111 



the school achievements of such schools. In presenting the results 
of the reading tests, therefore, the median ages have in each case 
been given. 

The combinations of the several schools tend to obscure certain 
facts. It is, therefore, deemed advisable to present the reading test 
scores in terms of children's ages regardless of the grades in which 
the pupils of a particular age are found. In Table 19 the facts are 
given for the upper grade reading test. About 6000 pupils are rep- 
resented in this table: 2000 in one- teacher schools and 4000 in the 
larger schools. In the "larger schools" are included the pupils of 
the several ages who are in high school in the districts included. 

7i 



There were no high school pupils in the one-teacher schools. 
Graphic representation of the facts may be found in Figure 14. The 




Figure 14. — Reading examination, Sigma 3, Form B. One-teacher schools. 
Grades 5-8. Four-teacher schools. Grades 5-8 and all high schools 

pupils in the smaller schools uniformly score below the pupils of 
corresponding ages in the larger schools. In the case of the 10-year- 

72 



olds (there were no high school students in this group) the difference 
is 18 points which is about equal to the progress which average 
pupils will make in one year of schooling. For the other ages 
similar discrepancies appear as between the smaller and the larger 
schools. The one exception to this is for age 13, where the pupils 
of the smaller schools make a higher score than would be expected 
from the performance of the 12- or 14-year-olds. The real cause of 



Table 20. — Reading: 


Sigma 


L. Four-Teacher 


Schools. 


Grades 


1-4. 


Distribution of Scores b\ 


Ages. Median Score 


FOR 


Each Age 






Ages 










5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


1 


5 


81 


66 


52 


14 


5 


5 




3 








1-5 2 


6 


121 


131 


131 


64 


30 


7 


7 


4 


2 






6-10 


2 


42 


52 


64 


37 


23 


16 


7 


6 


2 


1 


1 


11-15 


3 


24 


60 


60 


40 


35 


11 


8 


7 


2 


1 




16-20 




25 


52 


55 


57 


38 


25 


15 


3 


3 






21-25 




10 


36 


83 


64 


45 


30 


15 


13 


3 


2 




26-30 




9 


28 


69 


94 


47 


35 


19 


9 


2 


2 




31-35 






17 


54 


87 


59 


44 


22 


11 


3 


1 


1 


36-40 






11 


38 


95 


64 


27 


14 


12 


2 






41-45 






3 


19 


59 


40 


17 


2 




2 






46-50 


























Totals 4 


6 


312 


456 


625 


611 


386 


217 


109 


68 


21 


7 


2 


Median score. . 


2 


3 


9 


17 


28 


28 


28 


27 


26 


24 


24 





this is not apparent unless it be the greater elimination in the upper 
grades of the one- teacher schools. 

The results by ages for the upper grade reading are confirmed by 
the reading scores for the first four grades, as is obvious from a 
study of Table 22. The ages shown are from 5 to include 11. There 
are a number of still older pupils in these grades but they are re- 
tarded pupils and so few in number that their scores do not properly 
represent age achievements. Inasmuch as there are large numbers 

73 



of eleven-year-olds in grades above the fourth — 62 percent in one- 
room school and 66 percent in larger schools — the figures for these 



Table 21. — Reading 


Sigma 


1. One-Teacher Schools. 


Grades 


1-4. 


Distribution of Scores b\ 


Ages. Median Score 


FOR 


Each Age 




Ages 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


3 


7 


75 


70 


50 


14 


4 


1 


2 


2 








1-5 2 


3 


135 


140 


136 


71 


38 


12 


5 


3 


1 




1 


6-10 


3 


26 


52 


74 


47 


30 


6 


2 


6 


1 






11-15 




8 


30 


65 


48 


28 


13 


6 


3 


2 




1 


16-20 




8 


27 


45 


61 


45 


17 


10 


5 


7 


1 




21-25 




5 


22 


46 


80 


53 


35 


14 


6 


4 






26-30 




3 


13 


34 


55 


58 


32 


23 


10 


6 


2 


1 


31-35 






3 


26 


49 


52 


24 


12 


3 


2 






36-40 






2 


7 


34 


34 


22 


7 


6 








41-45 








2 


7 




5 












46-50 


























Totals 6 


3 


260 


359 


485 


466 


342 


167 


81 


44 


23 


3 


3 


Median score. . . 




3 


5 


10 


22 


24 


26 


26 


23 


21 


26 


11 



Table 22. 



-Reading, Sigma 1. Median Scores of Pupils in One- and 
Four-Teacher Schools by Ages 



School 


Ages in years 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


One- teacher 


0.0 
1.6 


3 

3 
6 


5.1 
8.6 
10 


10 

17.0 

19 


22 
28 
27 


24 

28 
33 


26 


Four- teacher 


28 


Standard age norms 


43 



ages are less significant. With these restrictions, it may be seen 
that the larger schools are securing better results in reading. For 
eight-year-olds, the largest of the age groups, the difference is 6 



74 



points, which is about two-thirds of a year superiority for the larger 
schools. About one-half year's difference occurs for the nine-year- 
olds. The ten-year-old scores are vitiated by the factor of selection, 
30 percent of ten-year-olds being above grade 4. Figure 15 shows 
the scores graphically. 



5fondond Grade 
Score, 

3 





















<< 


tC 

& 












, ^r 









5 6 7 

Figure 15. — Reading: Sigma 1. 



10 



llyts. 



Median age scores for pupils in one- and four- 
teacher schools 



Reading and Intelligence 
How much of the inferior reading achievement of the rural 
schools and particularly of the one-teacher schools may be due to 
inferior native capacity on the part of the pupils in these schools 
and how much of it is due directly to inadequate educational pro- 
visions is a matter which will be discussed in Chapter VIII. Con- 
siderable data bearing upon the problem are available in the results of 
the so-called intelligence examinations which were given to all 
pupils from grades 3 to 12 inclusive. The determinations of the 

75 



relative proportion of success or failure chargeable to native ca- 
pacity is an important item in the proper evaluation of the school 
product. On the one hand, the school should not be charged with 
deficiencies due to low native abilities in pupils. On the other hand, 
if it should appear that the pupils in the smaller schools have less 
capacity than the pupils in the larger schools, there exists an added 
reason for superior educational efficiency in these schools because 
the practical needs of the adult are not less, but in reality more. 
The whole matter will receive consideration later. 



Recommendations 

1. The reading situation in the New York rural schools clearly 
calls for remedial measures. The first of such measures is a clearer 
recognition on the part of school authorities of the importance of the 
subject and of the existing deficiencies. The naivete with which the 
State Department syllabus for English Language and Literature 
outlines the "chief aims " in literature teaching — they are very noble 
aims, indeed — in utter indifference to the existing reading deficien- 
cies of elementary and high school pupils indicates that the begin- 
ning of improvement is to be made by those who prescribe courses 
of study. One searches this syllabus in vain for any recognition of 
the fact that high school students must be taught to read or for any 
suggestion of the essential technique for improvement of the silent 
reading ability of pupils. Until those in authority recognize the 
facts and the importance of silent reading skill, little will be accom- 
plished. 

2. A second suggestion is that objective measures of reading 
ability which give attainable standard scores should be used so that 
both teachers and pupils may have a clear understanding not only of 
the present status of pupils but also of the desirable goals to be 
attained. If existing tests and examinations do not commend them- 
selves, others may be made and used. These should provide stan- 
dards for every grade from 1 to 12. 

3. Third, there should be increased supervision of instruction in 
reading in the elementary school. By supervision here is meant 
something very different from inspection and criticism. It should 

7 6 



be the helpful sort that teaches teachers how to teach children to 
read. 

4. Any suggestion made for the improvement of reading applies 
with greatest force to the one-teacher schools. It is in them that 
the pupils are in greatest need, and the teachers of these schools are 
least able to make, unaided, the desired improvement. 



77 



CHAPTER IV 
MEASURES OF ABILITY 

IN THE foregoing pages the results of the reading tests have been 
presented with little or no reference to the original capacities of 
pupils. It has been assumed, by inference, at least, that all 
pupils are equally endowed with the mental ability necessary to do 
school work. That such an assumption as regards individuals is 
invalid, there is abundant evidence in modern experimental educa- 
tion to show, for there is no more significant outstanding result of 
recent studies than that individuals differ measurably in their mental 
equipment, and that educational methods must take account of 
these differences in native endowment. 

While these differences as regards individuals are a generally 
accepted tenet of current educational discussion, it is not equally 
clear that whole communities may be characterized as superior or 
mediocre or inferior. It may just be possible that individuals of 
varying capacities are so distributed throughout the population in 
this respect as to equalize all communities. Much of our school 
organization which extends over wide areas, as, for instance, a state, 
seems to make this assumption. Such differentiation of curriculum 
as does occur is generally made in reference to vocational interests 
and needs or community problems rather than in any adaptation to 
capacities of pupils. In how far this assumption is valid is a matter 
of scientific and, to some extent, of practical interest, and a state- 
wide survey gives an opportunity to study the problem to some 
degree. 

If such native capacities, either of individuals or of communities, 
do exert a determinative influence on school product, their existence 
should be carefully considered in a discriminating assessment of 
school achievements. If a good school product is primarily the out- 

78 



come of good ability on the part of the pupils, this fact, if known, 
should prevent an undiscriminating praise of methods of instruction 
and school organization. Conversely, a teacher or school should 
not be charged with a poor school product when the latter is due 
chiefly to low ability on the part of pupils. The same methods of 
instruction and school procedure which give good results with pupils 
of ordinary ability may be inadequate with pupils of poor ability, 
and if the latter are to be brought up to a satisfactory achievement, 
it may call for different and better methods of teaching. It may be 
equally true that pupils of superior ability are inefficiently taught 
when grouped with their inferiors or when they are subjected to the 
same curriculum and the same methods of instruction. 

It is easier to state the need for such discrimination than it is to 
devise an adequate method for making it. In any child of six who 
comes to school, original capacities and acquired habits are so 
blended as to be largely inextricable. The complexity increases with 
succeeding school years. What a child of any age within the limits 
of schooling does with reference to an arithmetical problem is due 
in part to his original capacities and in part to his school and life 
experience. To separate these factors in his performance and to 
determine the part of that performance which is directly attrib- 
utable to his school life is exceedingly difficult and to a degree im- 
possible. The discrimination is so important, however, for a correct 
evaluation of school influence that any approach to an accurate 
separation of the two factors seems important. Such an approach 
is to some extent possible through the technic developed in connec- 
tion with educational measurements and particularly with intelli- 
gence testing. 

Intelligence Examinations 
To avail ourselves of the values of this technic, a series of so- 
called intelligence tests were given throughout the survey. The 
Haggerty Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, 1 was given to all pupils 
tested in grades 3 to 12 inclusive, and in addition, the Miller Mental 
Ability Test 2 was given to all high school pupils. The results of the 

1 Haggerty, M. E.: Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, 1920, World Book Co. 

2 Miller, W. S. : Mental Ability Test, Form A, 1921, World Book Co. 

79 



tests are therefore available for about 7550 children and for every 
type of rural school. 

Before proceeding to a study of these results a brief examination 
of the tests will be in order. 

Haggerty Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 

The Haggerty Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, is a modifica- 
tion and adaptation of the Army Intelligence examinations. It 
comprises the arithmetical problems, synonym-antonym, practical 
judgment, and information tests of the army Alpha examinations, 
the picture-completion test of the Beta group, and the sentence 
reading tests, sometimes called the "D evens Literacy" test. The 
several tests chosen were modified by a selection of the items best 
adapted to school conditions and by the addition of similar items. 
The six tests thus adapted are printed in a single booklet. The 
directions for giving the test are simple; the time for the entire test 
is short, twenty-one minutes, net time, and the scoring is entirely 
objective. The relation which each of the tests holds to the total 
score may be seen from the table of coefficients of correlation 1 
(Table 23). This table also gives the intercorrelations of the several 
tests. 

This intelligence examination has had wide usage in survey and 
experimental problems, and numerous correlations and other evi- 
dences of its usefulness are now available. 

This experimental evidence shows that it may be used with a 
high degree of assurance to predict the success of pupils. 2 The 
correlations with school progress, teachers' ratings for intelligence, 
school marks and other tests of similar type are all significant. 

As illustrative of this fact an example may be taken from the 
results of the tests in the Virginia Survey. Figure 16 is here repro- 
duced from Part 2 of the Virginia Public Schools. It may be ex- 
plained by the description there printed. 

"The numbers along the base line represent the criterion score. 
The heavy horizontal line across the middle of the figure indicates 

1 Unless otherwise stated, all coefficients of correlation given in this volume 
are by the Pearson Products Moment method. 

2 Virginia Public Schools, Part 2, Yonkers, New York, 1921. 

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The horizontal line next above (+ 1Q) is placed at a distance 
from the median, which is equivalent to the semi-interquartile 
range (Q) of the scores in the Delta 2 examination. The second 
horizontal line (+ 2Q) above the median is placed at twice the 
distance of the semi-interquartile range above the median. Simi- 
larly, — 3Q represents three times this measure of variation. In 




10 15 £0 25 30 35 40 



Figure 16. — Correlation graph, showing relationship of scores in general 
intelligence examination Delta 2 and criterion (4 X grade location -f- teacher's 
rating in intelligence). 300 children, Grades 3-7, Richmond public 
schools, r = .86. P. E. ± .01 



like manner the horizontal lines — 1Q, — 2Q, and — 3Q repre- 
sent corresponding distances below the median. 

"The middle vertical line (M) represents the median criterion 
score (24). The lines + 1Q, + 2Q, and +3Q represent dis- 
tances above the median of the criterion score equivalent to one, 
two, and three times the semi-interquartile range (Q) of the 

82 



criterion scores of the 300 children. The vertical lines — 1Q, 
— 2Q, and — 3Q represent similar distances below the same 
median." 

The dots in the figure represent individual children whose crite- 
rion score may be obtained by locating the vertical for each dot on 
the base line and whose test score is shown on the ordinate at the 
left. 

"All of the dots inclosed within the two diagonal lines represent 
children who do not differ in their relative standing in one test 
from their relative standing in the other test by an amount 
greater than the semi-interquartile range in either test. The 
children represented by the dots outside the diagonal lines repre- 
sent cases which do differ in one test from the median score in 
that test by an amount relatively larger than the variation which 
they achieve in the other test. To put it in another way: The 
dots within the diagonal lines represent children who are grouped 
in approximately the same manner by the two measures used. 
The dots outside the diagonal lines show children who are given 
different relative standings by the two measures. The fact that 
relatively few dots are found outside the diagonal lines indicates 
that the scores in the two measures give approximately the same 
kind of classification." 

An illustration drawn to the same pattern and based on New 
York data may be seen in Figure 17. Figure 17 represents the 
correlation between the scores in Delta 2, shown on the ordinate, 
and the criterion scores for 200 eighth grade pupils in Erie 
County. These two hundred include all the Erie County eighth 
graders for whom all the achievement test scores are available. The 
criterion in this case is the sum of all the achievement test scores. 
These include reading, spelling, addition, multiplication and two 
tests in American history. The maximum criterion score possible is 
342; the actual maximum is 304 and the median is 193. The 
coefficient turns out in this case to be .71 ± .0243. 

A similar correlation graph is shown in Figure 18, based on the 
results for 232 twelve-year-olds who were in the schools of West- 
chester County. The twelve-year-olds in grades 2, 3, 4, and 9 are 
omitted, since the reading scores are not available for them. The 

83 




100 110 KO 130 



150 160 170 100 190 £00 W Z2Q £30 £40 £30 £60 £70 260 £90 300 310 



Figure 17. — Correlation graph showing relationship between scores in in- 
telligence examination Delta 2 and criterion scores (the sum of all achievement 
tests), 200 eighth-grade pupils in Erie County 




30 40 50 60 70 00 90 100 110 120 130 WO 150 !60 170 160 190 £00 £10 ££0 DO 



Figure 18. — Correlation graph showing relationship between scores in in- 
telligence examination, Delta 2 and criterion scores [the sum of: grade location 
X 10, teacher's rating for scholarship (equated 5 = 9, 4 = 7, 3 = 5, 2 = 3, 
1 = 1) and scores in readingl; 232 twelve-year-olds of Westchester County 

84 



criterion, in this case, the scores of which are shown along the base 
of the figure is derived from the summation of the following items : 

Grade location X 10 
Teacher's rating for scholarship 
Scores in reading 

In this case the " grade location" is multiplied by 10, the reading is 
included in terms of the gross scores and the teacher's rating for 
intelligence as given in the record is equated according to the fol- 
lowing scale: 

5 = 9 

4= 7 

3 = 5 

2 = 3 

1 = 1 

The maximum score possible from this combination is 238; the 
actual maximum is 205 and the median for the group is 130. The 
figures along the left ordinate are scores in the Delta 2 test. 

The figure is drawn after the same pattern as that of Figure 16, 
the diagonal lines enclosing all the cases which are similarly classified 
by the two measures within the range of the quartile deviation. 

Stenquist's Findings 
The Delta 2 examination has been frequently used with other 
group intelligence examinations. Stenquist reports 1 the results of 
an extended investigation of the validity of group intelligence ex- 
aminations of which the Delta 2 was one. In this study a criterion 
composed of the sum of all the test results was used as a measure of 
each test. The coefficients of correlation for each test with this 
criterion are as follows: 

Haggerty, Delta 2 r = 0.808 (n = 532) 

National A r = 0.801 (n = 560) 

National B r = 0.788 (n = 518) 

Otis (Advanced) r = 0.680 (n = 551) 

Visual Vocabulary r = 0.680 (n = 461) 

Kelley-Trabue r = 0.58 (n = 581) 

Meyers Mental Measure r = 0.48 (n «= 544) 

Woody-McCall Arithmetic r = 0.39 (n = 298) 

1 Stenquist, John L. Unreliability of Individual Scores in Mental Measure- 
ments. Journal of Educational Research, Vol. IV, p. 347 ff. 

85 



The coefficient for the Delta 2 is as high as that for any test, 
slightly higher than some and very much higher than others. Sten- 
quist also reports correlations for Delta 2 with other group tests as 
follows : 

National Scale A, 500 cases in grades 4 to 8 r = .81 =*= .01 

Otis Advanced, 500 cases in grades 4 to 8 r = .59 =«= .02 

National Scale B, 50 cases r = .69 =*= .04 



Miller's Data 
Miller reports a study in which he used as a criterion the sum of 
the scores in the Miller Mental Ability test, the Intelligence Exami- 
nation, Delta 2, and the Terman Group Test of Mental Ability, 
Form A. The coefficients of correlation are shown in the following 
table: 



Table 24. — Correlations (Pearson) of Miller Test With Other Tests 
and With School Marks. 55 Ninth-Grade Pupils, University of Min- 
nesota High School 





Delta 
2 


Terman 

Form 

A 


Alpha 

Form 

8 


Menti- 
meters 


Av. 

First 

3 
Tests 


Av. 
Five 

Tests 


School 
Marks 

(12) 
Weeks 


Otis 
Test 


Miller 

Delta 2 


.784 


.747 
.817 


.76 

.778 
.823 


.768 
.685 
.714 
.712 


.891 
.904 
.931 
.842 
.779 


.903 

.884 
.929 
.914 
.842 
.975 


.563 
.503 
.586 
.564 
.409 
.562 
.60 


.734 
71S 


Terman, Form A 
Alpha, Form 8 . . . 

Mentimeter 

Av. First 3 tests . 
Av. 5 tests above 


.741 
.716 
.654 

.841 



All correlations are positive. 



On the basis of tests given by Dickson in the Oakland Schools, 
the Delta 2 shows a coefficient of .65 =±= .039 with the army Alpha. 
From the same data the coefficient of correlation with the Stanford 
Revision of the Binet Scale has been found to be .84 =*= .018. Simi- 
lar figures have been furnished the writer by Superintendent Bliss, 
Dr. Elizabeth Woods and others. 

86 



Study by Franzen 

A more crucial examination of the value of the Delta 2 test has 
been made by Dr. Raymond Franzen in a study * involving fourteen 
group intelligence examinations. All of the tests were given to the 
same group of 57 first year high school pupils. Each of the tests was 
checked against a criterion composed of the sum of the scores in all 
the tests. The results were presented in successive tables showing 
the correlation of each test with the total, the correlations of each 
test with the other thirteen, and the intercorrelations of all tests 
with reading ability (Thorndike Alpha 2) rendered constant, the 
correlations with average marks in first semester in high school, 
correlations with the teachers' judgments, and with age at high 
school entrance. From all these data Franzen concludes as to the 
value of the tests. The Delta 2 he includes along with the Otis and 
the National tests, all of which "give a fairly good account of them- 
selves" in all of the tables. 

In interpreting this conclusion of Franzen's it should be kept in 
mind that the Delta 2 was originally intended for the intermediate 
and grammar grades. This demonstration of its value for high 
school pupils notably extends its usefulness. 

Gates' Study 
Gates, 2 reporting a recent study on the relation of achievement 
in school subjects to the scores in intelligence tests, cites the corre- 
lation of each of 14 intelligence tests with each of the others and 
the correlation of each with a composite measure of achievement in 
school subjects. He finds only two tests with a higher mean inter- 
correlation than the Delta 2. The advantage of one of these which 
requires a third more time in giving is only .01 and of the other 
which requires more than double the amount of time is but .05. 
Only two of the group examinations requiring as small an amount 
of time (National A and National B) show as high correlations with 
the composite of achievement. It shows practically the same corre- 

1 Unpublished manuscript. 

2 Arthur I. Gates. The correlations of achievement in school subjects with 
in telligence tests and other variables. Journal of Educational Psychology, 
Vol. XIII, p. 223. 

87 



lation to the composite of achievement (.52) as does the Stanford 
Revision of the Binet test and no group examination employing so 
small a measure of time showed quite so high a correlation with 
the Stanford Mental Age. 

Important figures collected from several of Gates' tables here 
follow: 





1 


2 


3 


4 




Time 


Correlation 


Mean r with 


Mean r with 




(minutes) 


with Stanford 
Binet 


achievement 


13 tests 


Dearborn Total 


80 


.58 


0.47 


44 


Otis Advanced 


47 


.61 


0.63 


.53 


Dearborn 5 


45 


.49 


0.43 


.43 


Dearborn 4 


35 


.52 


0.38 


.41 


National Total 


33 


.51 


0.63 


.50 


Thorndike-McCall . . 


30 


.57 


0.48 


.46 


Terman Groups .... 


27 




0.55 


.49 


Haggerty, Delta 2 . . . 


21 


.48 


0.52 


.48 


National A 


17 


.47 


0.56 


.48 


Illinois 


17 
16 


.45 
.45 


0.48 
0.66 


.48 


National B 


.47 


Myers 


15 


.28 


0.12 


.21 


Holley 


12 


.42 


0.43 


.37 







Too much significance should not be attached to the absolute 
size of any of the foregoing coefficients of correlation as compared 
with the coefficients previously quoted. The magnitude of any such 
coefficient is dependent on a number of factors besides the essential 
relation existing between two measures. Variations in range and 
character of distributions affect the size of the coefficient even 
though the relation between the two measures remain the same. 
Only when coefficients are calculated on the same or closely similar 
groups are they directly comparable. 

In the light of all these statistical data it may be inferred that the 
Intelligence Examination Delta 2 has high rank among tests of this 
type. It is not a perfect measure of ability, either native or ac- 
quired, but it is apparently superior to any single achievement test 
and adds materially to the information which the achievement tests 
give concerning a school system. 

88 



Age Norms in Delta 2 

In Table 25 are shown age norms for the Delta 2 examinations 
based on the results of the test with about 40,000 pupils ranging 
from grade 3 of the elementary school to the second year of college. 
These norms are not exact medians for any particular group of 
individuals. As will be seen later in the case of New York pupils, 
different groups of pupils of the same chronological age will give 
different median scores on this test and they will do so on any test 
of similar type. Thus, twelve-year-old pupils in the one-teacher 
schools of New York state score 75, whereas pupils of the same 
chronological age in larger schools score 93, a difference of 18 points. 
This difference is greater than the difference for a full year's growth 
as represented by the increase of score over that of eleven-year-olds 
for either group. These two groups of twelve-year-olds are, how- 
ever, fairly large and are relatively unselected groups from their 
several communities. Median scores such as these are taken into 
consideration in fixing the norms as given in the table. 

Similar results from schools of varying types and from widely 
diverse conditions are also considered. In addition to such com- 
parative studies of median scores for the several chronological ages, 
the advance shown by large groups from one chronological age to 
the one next above and to the second above, etc., are considered. 
Comparison is also made with median test scores for separate school 
grades having known median ages, and with the score made by 
pupils in good schools who are of normal age for the grade in which 
they are found. In the case of the upper ages, the median scores for 
the several high school grades were of especial value. 

From these and other similar considerations the age norms found 
in Table 25 have been determined. The scores for the intervening 
months have been fixed by dividing the inter-age differences into 
twelve equal parts and distributing these along the several months 
from one age to the one next above. The table, therefore, is a 
genuine construction and in no sense a reproduction of the median 
scores for any particular group of children. Certain groups of 
school children will score uniformly above these norms and certain 
other groups will score uniformly below them. It is believed, how- 
ever, that these norms will serve as a fairly accurate point of 

8 9 



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90 



reference for pupils of the ages here shown, and, as a point of 
reference which is constant, they will be serviceable in evaluating 
the relative abilities of pupils who are examined with this intelli- 
gence examination. That such a point of reference shall be fairly 
within the range of probable error theoretically true for a genuinely 
unselected group of persons of each chronological age, and that it 
remain constant, is all that the practical uses of such a table of 
norms demand. 



Table 26. — Haggerty Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Age Norms 
for Individuals of Ages 7 to 20 Years. Based on 40,000 Cases. 
7 Years = 7 Years, Months, to 7 Years, 11 Months 



7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


7 


20 


42 


58 


70 


82 


94 


105 


116 


125 


132 


137 


141 


144 



The norms given for ages 7 and 8 are to a degree fictitious. The 
test is not designed for pupils so young as normal children of these 
ages. The figures are printed here as convenient points of reference 
for older pupils who make low scores. This statement is but slightly 
less true for ages 18 to 20. All pupils of these latter ages who are 
still in school are a group from which almost all the pupils of inferior 
ability have been eliminated. They are a selected group, how highly 
selected no one can easily say. In the Delta 2 test, the scores show 
slight increases from age to age of these higher age groups. The 
curve does not take full advantage of these increases, on the sup- 
position that they are in part due to a selection of the better in- 
dividuals. In accordance with the general belief that the growth in 
intelligence stops or slows up in the neighborhood of 16 years, the 
upper limits of the age curve have been arbitrarily flattened more 
than the median scores would seem to warrant. 

Mental-age-grade tables (44— 44c) based on these norms for New 
York school children are found on pages 130-133. 

A mental growth curve based on this table of norms is found in 
figure 19. The figures along the left ordinate indicate the scores in 
the test. The successive chronological ages with the inter-age 

9i 



month intervals are given along the base line. The curved line 
represents in terms of these two factors the mental growth which 
an individual makes with increasing chronological age. 



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Figure 19.— Intelligence examination, Delta 2. Mental growth curve. 
Figures on left ordinate indicate score. Figures on base line indicate chrono- 
logical age 



The reliability of the norms given in Table 25 will be evidenced by 
the list of intelligence quotients given herewith. These quotients 
are for 998 pupils in grades 3 to 9 of one school system, being all the 
pupils in the system in these grades. The median I. Q. for the 
entire group turns out to be 98.3. 

92 



I. Q- Cases 

46-50 2 

51-55 

56-60 1 

61-65 7 

66-70 17 

71-75 46 

76-80 55 

81-85 88 

86-90 108 

91-95 118 

96-100 118 

101-105 118 

106-110 90 

111-115 63 

116-120 : 56 

121-125 43 

126-130 23 

131-135 14 

136-140 13 

141-145 18 



Total 998 

Median 98.3 

Miller Mental Ability Test 

The Miller Mental Ability Test 1 is an examination composed of 
three tests. The first is a combined disarranged sentence and writ- 
ten directions test; the second is a combined vocabulary and con- 
trolled association test; the third is a modified mixed relations or 
analogies test. Each test is composed of 40 items arranged in an 
order of difficulty beginning with easy exercises. The later items in 
each test are very difficult. The time required for the test is about 
40 minutes, the total possible score is 120 points, and the test may 
be used for pupils in grades 7 to 12 inclusive. 

This test has had considerable use with high school pupils. Dr. 
Miller gives the following table of results based upon examination 
of about 6000 high school pupils. 

Table 26a. — Percentile Distribution, September Scores. 6236 Pupils, 

Grades 7 to 12 



Year 



Cases 





10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


1113 


1 


17 


23 


27 


31 


35 


39 


44 


50 


58 


978 


5 


25 


32 


37 


42 


46 


51 


56 


62 


68 


1515 


1 


29 


37 


43 


48 


53 


57 


63 


69 


77 


1011 


7 


39 


47 


53 


58 


62 


66 


70 


76 


84 


880 


16 


44 


52 


59 


64 


69 


74 


78 


83 


89 


739 


8 


50 


58 


64 


69 


74 


78 


83 


87 


93 



100 



Seventh . 
Eighth . . 
Ninth . . . 
Tenth. 
Eleventh 
Twelfth . 



85 
96 
103 
106 
110 
116 



1 Miller, W. S.: Mental Ability Test, Manual of Directions, 1921. World 
Book Company, Yonkers, New York. 

93 



A table showing coefficients of correlation for the Miller Test with 
other tests has already been given on page 86. With the average of 
five well-known group intelligence examinations the coefficient is 
.90, and with high school marks the coefficient is .56. 

Sccrs 
130 



J20 
110 
100 
90 
80 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 
10 



10 20 30 40 50 GO 70 80 90 100& 
Figure 20. — Miller Mental Ability. Grades 7-12. 6236 pupils. Percentile graph 

The distribution which the Miller test gives for high school pupils 
may be seen in Figure 20, which gives the percentile graphs based on 

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the data in Table 26a. For each grade the distribution appears to 
approximate normal, the increase of score from grade to grade is 
distinct and measurable in amount, and the range within each grade 
is sufficient to show adequate discriminative capacity in the test. 
The relation which the Miller test bears to intelligence examinations 
designed for the upper levels of mental capacity to be found among 
college students may be seen in Table 26b. Each of the two forms 
of the Miller test shows a coefficient much above .80 with the aver- 
age of nine other intelligence examinations. 

The relation between the test and the ability to do college work is 
shown by the following table: 



Table 26c. — Percentage Distribution or 2901 College Freshmen Marks, 
Academic Subjects, First Quarter 1921-1922, University of Minnesota 


Miller Test, Form A 


College marks (12 weeks) 


F. 


Dr. 


I. 


E. 


D. 


C. 


B. 


A. 


Highest One-fourth 

Second One-fourth 


5.9 
11.1 
16.5 
21.4 


1.1 
2.2 
3.4 
7.3 


2.0 
0.4 
1.3 
1.9 


2.8 
5.7 
6.6 
8.5 


16.0 
22.5 
24.0 
26.2 


36.1 

38.5 
35.5 
29.0 


24.4 

15.8 

10.8 

5.0 


11.6 

3 7 


Third One- fourth 


70 


Lowest One-fourth 


07 






Average of total 


14.0 


3.0 


1.0 


6.5 


22.0 


35.0 


14.0 


4.5 







Paterson 1 has found that with a group of 90 sophomores in a 
course in experimental psychology at the University of Minnesota 
the Form A of this test, the one used in the survey, shows a coeffi- 
cient of correlation with the Thorndike intelligence examination for 
high school seniors of .82. 

Miller 2 gives the following method of figuring an intelligence 
quotient: 

"To translate a score in this test into an approximate intelli- 
gence quotient, determine first the mental age by allowing two 
months for each point above 20 in the score and add this to ten 



Unpublished manuscript. 



2 Miller Manual of Directions. 



96 



years or 120 months which is allowed for a score of 20. Then 
divide this mental age in months by the chronological age in 
months; the quotient will be the approximate intelligence quo- 
tient. 

"Expressed in a formula, IQ= 12 ° + 2 C ^ S " 20) , where S is total 
score on test and CA is the chronological age in months. 

"By removing the parentheses the formula may be simplified 
to read: IQ= 2S ^ A 80 . This means that the mental age in months 
can be obtained by doubling the score and adding 80. 

"It should be emphasized that intelligence quotients deter- 
mined in this manner are only an approximation and should be so 
interpreted. 

" High school pupils with scores below 20 have in all probability 
not fully understood the directions, or have not taken the test 
seriously. Before concluding that their ability is as low as such 
a score would indicate, they should be re-examined on this test 
or on some other group test, or their IQ should be determined by 
use of the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Test." 

By the use of this method the median intelligence quotients for 
the three grades of a senior high school not included in the group 
from which the norms were determined are as follows: 



Grades 



X 

114 



XI 
112 



XII 
120 



Correlations for Reading Examination, Sigma 3 
Inasmuch as we shall have occasion to refer to the results of the 
reading examination, Sigma 3, in connection with the results of the 
intelligence examination, a further word concerning it will be here in 
order. A table (Table 27) of coefficients of correlation of each of the 
three tests composing this examination with the total score and the 
intercorrelations among the several tests is here given. 

It is clear from this table that the several tests measure only in 
part the same functions. The average of the coefficients of inter- 

7 97 



correlation is .563. The self-correlation of each of the tests is very 
much higher than this. In a different group of somewhat wider 
range the coefficients of self-correlation derived by a second trial of 
the same examination are as follows: Entire examination, .89; vo- 
cabulary, .87; sentence reading, .77; and paragraph reading, .81 
(126 cases from grades 5 to 8 inclusive) . The several tests evidently 
supplement each other by measuring different reading abilities. 



Table 27. — Reading Examination, Sigma 3: Correlations of Several 
Parts op Examination With the Total Score, and Intercorrelations 
Among the Several Tests. 442 Cases of High School Students 





Total 


Test 1 


Test 2 


Test 3 


Total... 


• { P.E. = 




.63 
.. ±.02 


.75 
.. ±.014 


.78 
.. ±.012 




. { P.E* = 


.63 




.56 


.59 


Test 1 . . 


.. ±.02 




.. ±.024 


.. ±.023 


Test 2.. 


■ \ P.E. = 


.75 
.. ±.014 


.56 
.. ±.024 




.55 
.. ±.024 


Test 3.. 


• \ P.E. = 


.78 
.. ±.012 


.59 
.. ±.023 


.55 
.. ±.024 





An examination of the coefficients of correlation of each of the 
three tests with the total score indicates that the paragraph reading 
test contributes most to the total score and that the vocabulary test 
contributes least. The former coefficient is .78 =*= .012 and the 
latter is .63 =*= .02. The sentence test is intermediate with a coeffi- 
cient of .75 =*= .014. This order of relation is probably the desirable 
one for a satisfactory measure of reading achievement. 



Relations Among the Three Examinations 
The relation which the reading examination bears to the intelli- 
gence examinations may be seen in Table 28, which gives not only 
the coefficients of correlation for the Sigma 3 examination with the 
Delta 2 and the Miller tests, but also the coefficients for the several 
combinations of these three examinations. Each of these three 
examinations gives higher self-correlations than any coefficient 

9 8 



shown in this table. The facts for the Delta 2 are reported in the 
Virginia Public Schools 1 as follows: 

"The best evidence, however, of the reliability of the Delta 2 
examination was obtained by a repetition of the entire test in one 
school. In this school 129 children in grades three to six inclusive 
were tested about 10 o'clock in the morning; about 2 o'clock in 
the afternoon of the same day, the same children were given the 
same test. In the second trial the children gained on an average 
twelve points, and the coefficient of correlation between the 
scores of the two trials was .90 =*= .01. The several tests showed 
coefficients of self-correlation ranging from .71 to .86." 

Table 28. — Coefficients of Correlation Based on 442 Cases of 9th 
Grade Pupils in Large High Schools, Involving Intelligence Examina- 
tion Delta 2, Reading Examination, Sigma 3, and Miller Mental 
Ability Test 









Delta 2 






Delta 2 


Sigma 3 


and 
Sigma 3 


Miller 


Delta 2 I ^ J ~ 




.62 


.92 


.61 






± .021 


± .006 


± .021 


Sigma 3 I p £ r _ 


.62 

± .021 




.85 

=fc .009 


.79 

± .012 


Delta 2 and / r = 


.92 


.85 




.55 


Sigma 3 \ P.E. = 


=*= .006 


± .009 




± .025 


Miller | p E r Z 


.61 

± .021 


.79 

± .012 


.55 

* .025 





The results for a repetition of the Sigma 3 examination are reported 
in the Manual of Directions as follows: 

"The Sigma 3 test was given to 126 pupils in Grades 5C to 8A 
on one day, and the test was repeated two days later. The corre- 
lation between the two trials was .885. The several tests showed 
self-correlations as follows: Vocabulary, .865; Sentence, .769; 
and Paragraph, .806. The average increase in score was about 
5 points." 

That the Miller test is a dependable measure is evident from the 
coefficients of correlation. Based on the results of two trials on 

1 Virginia Public Schools, Part 2, page 122. 
99 



successive days of the same form of the test with 109 high school 
sophomores, the coefficient of self-correlation is .88. The Pearson 
coefficient of variation for the distributions on the two trials of the 
test were 20.5 and 19.1 respectively. 

From the coefficients given in Table 28 and from the coefficients of 
self -correlation for each of the several tests, it may be inferred that 
these several examinations supplement each other by measuring to 
some degree different abilities. The highest coefficient for any two 
of the tests is .79 for the Miller and the Sigma 3; and lowest for the 
Delta 2 and the Miller with a figure of .61. The probable errors for 
these coefficients are all small. 

A combination of the scores from all these tests would seem to be 
a more complete measure of an individual than any one of them 
alone would be. Together they require about two hours of a pupil's 
time. 

Attention may be called to the fact that each of the tests require 
reading ability on the part of the pupil. Those unable to read will 
score zero in both the Miller and the Sigma 3 tests. On the Delta 2 
they can score a maximum of 20 points and only that by doing the 
picture completion test perfectly. Whatever abilities pupils may 
possess which are not measured by tests requiring reading ability 
escape evaluation by these tests. 



IOO 



CHAPTER V 
GROUPING OF PUPILS 

NOW that we have given consideration to the evaluation of 
the tests, we may turn to certain problems upon which the 
test results bear. First, we shall deal with the classification 
of pupils for instructional purposes. Undoubtedly the basic reason 
for such grouping is that instruction may thereby be improved. It 
is assumed that pupils of like minds, or of like stage of mental 
development, or of like previous training may be more efficiently 
instructed in groups than can pupils who differ greatly in these 
matters. The range of desirable variation is definitely fixed in the 
practice of most school systems. 

"How widely may the pupils of a single class vary in mental 
ability without interfering seriously with effective class instruc- 
tion? The answer given to this question by the vast majority of 
good schools the country over is, 'Less than six months.' In this 
period of time normal children make a sufficient growth that 
promotion to a higher grade is justified. In cities, generally, 
there is a regrouping of pupils at the end of every semester or at 
the end of each four and one-half months of school work. A 
number of schools make the readjustment three times a year or 
at intervals of three months. This is true in Minneapolis and 
St. Louis. The city schools in New York use the four and one- 
half months' interval. 

" Presumably what is implied in this practice is that a normal 
child in four and one-half months undergoes a sufficient mental 
growth to require a new grade classification, new subject-matter, 
different methods of instruction, different work periods, and dif- 
ferent social conditions. It should be emphasized that current 
practice recognizes to some extent that this mental development 
is not the exact counterpart of changed chronological age. It 
assumes a mental growth that is sometimes retarded, sometimes 
accelerated, and exactly correlated with chronological change in 
only about fifty percent of the cases." l 

1 Virginia Public Schools, Part 2. 



This generally accepted standard of grouping should be kept in 
mind while conditions in the New York rural schools are examined, 
because, whether we check existing conditions by intelligence tests, 
achievement tests, or by any other objective measure available, it is 
obvious that there is wide variation from the ideal stated in the 
above quotation. How much it is possible to reduce the excessive 
variation is an unsolved problem for schools, and any discussion of 
the matter must have due consideration to the complex nature of the 
factors involved. 

Cautions in Interpretation of Test Data 
At the outset it seems desirable to express emphatic caution 
against the assumption so frequently made in current discussion 
and practice that intelligence tests are a complete substitute for all 
other methods of pupil grouping. Only a superficial appreciation of 
the facts will permit such practice where additional criteria are 
available. 

In particular, it should be emphasized that a single intelligence 
test requiring ten, twenty or thirty minutes is an inadequate basis 
for a satisfactory grade allocation of an individual pupil. By any 
single group test, even when applied under standard conditions, a 
particular child may be misplaced by a half year, a whole year and, 
in some cases, even more in the capacities which intelligence tests 
aspire to measure. This fact has long been recognized by those 
working in the field of intelligence examinations, but has been 
frequently overlooked in the practical effort to improve pupil 
grouping speedily. While in general the intelligence test score made 
by a pupil adds greatly to our knowledge of that pupil's ability to 
do school work, there is nothing in the results of intelligence test 
investigations that justifies the discard of other sources of informa- 
tion, such as teachers' judgments, teachers' marks, scores in achieve- 
ment tests, etc., or even the surrender of common sense on the part 
of school officers when the grade location of a particular child is at 
stake. 

It may not be out of place to stress another matter which is 
receiving emphasis in current discussion, namely, the determination 
and significance of certain character traits, emotional and volitional 



attitudes, such as industry, perseverance, personal, intellectual and 
social interests, and a number of others. For this general field of 
non-intellectual traits we have as yet no adequate psychological 
analysis and no adequate means of measurement. The develop- 
ment of the intelligence tests has, however, enabled us to define, by 
process of exclusion, the existence of such a mental realm more 
definitely than was hitherto possible. Of its great significance there 
can be no reasonable doubt. To know what a man wants is often 
more valuable information about him than is a nicely scaled record 
of his intelligence, and the psychology of desire in childhood and the 
technique of its direction are probably of more practical importance 
for eighty percent of our children than is all our information con- 
cerning their intelligence. 

Even with the limitations — here freely admitted — of our intelli- 
gence tests results, it still is true that an intelligence test score is 
probably the best single measure available to show the range of 
abilities existing within a school system, and where we are consider- 
ing children in groups, the interpretation of our data will not do 
violence to any individual pupil or even to any individual school. 
It is believed that the massing of the data in the distribution tables 
which follow reflects the existence of school conditions which can 
be and should be greatly improved. 

Distribution of Scores in Delta 2 Examination 
The complete distributions of scores for the Delta 2 examination 
for the several types of schools are given in the tables immediately 
following. The data are given separately for one-, two-, three-, and 
four-teacher schools. In each table the figures in bold face in each 
grade column indicate the group containing the median individual. 
A superficial study of these tables will indicate a very large 
amount of overlapping from grade to grade. In view of the rela- 
tively high reliability and validity of the examination this is a 
significant showing. It means that there are pupils in the lower 
grades who, in terms of the test, are able to do the work of the 
grade next above, and in some cases, the work of two and three 
grades above. Thus, in Table 29, which shows the results for the 
larger schools, there are 59 pupils in grade 5 who score 105 points or 

103 



Table 29. — Intelligence: Delta 2. Four-Teacher Schools. Grades 3-8. 
Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and Age for Each 
Grade 





Grades 




5 




4 5 


6 


7 i 


5 

















1-5 


5 




3 1 








6-10 


6 




5 








11-15 1 


4 




8 2 








16-20 2 


1 


1 


19 5 








21-25 3 


7 


1 


L9 11 


*2 






26-30 4 


5 




J4 8 


2 


i '. 




31-35 4 


7 




J4 17 


5 


2 




36-40 4 


8 


i 


U 18 


5 






41-45 4 


5 




51 20 


11 


"l '. 




46-50 3 


2 


i 


39 37 


6 


2 




51-55 3 







10 36 


12 


2 




56-60 1 


7 


1 


51 41 


21 


4 


2 


61-65 1 


7 


( 


36 43 


32 


8 




66-70 2 


1 


( 


34 52 


36 


16 


3 


71-75 1 


2 




S7 61 


41 


28 


5 


76-80 


3 




*3 54 


48 


21 1 





81-85 


5 




M 55 


62 


26 


7 


86-90 


4 




n 36 


70 


31 2 


5 


91-95 


2 




>3 52 


70 


60 3 


4 


96-100 


1 




14 34 


46 


54 4 


1 


101-105 






4 27 


66 


44 4 


9 


106-110 






2 18 


52 


58 5 


3 


111-115 






4 20 


36 


59 6 


2 


116-120 






2 8 


32 


49 5 


1 


121-125 






4 


18 


35 5 


7 


126-130 






4 


17 


38 5 


2 


131-135 






5 


12 


24 3 


7 


136-140 








6 


11 3 


8 


141-145 








5 


7 1 


9 


146-150 










2 1 


3 


151-155 










1 


7 


156-160 










2 




161-165 












i 


Total 41 


2 


7: 


!8 669 


713 


587 56 


6 






Median score .... 3 


9 


: 


57 75 


91 


104 11 


5 


Median age 


9.2 


1 


0.5 11.6 


12.5 


13.5 1 


4.4 



104 



Table 30. — Intelligence: Delta 2. Three-Teacher Schools. Grades 3-8. 
Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Scores and Median Age 
for Each Grade 







Grades 






Total 
















3 


4 5 


6 


7 1 


5 



















1-5 














6-10 


5 










5 


11-15 


5 










5 


16-20 1 


4 










14 


21-25 1 


1 










11 


26-30 1 


1 


2 2 








15 


31-35 1 





3 








13 


36-40 1 





4 








14 


41-45 1 





5 4 


1 






20 


46-50 1 


1 


8 8 




1 




28 


51-55 


6 


8 3 








17 


56-60 


3 


5 8 


1 






17 


61-65 


4 


9 10 


1 




1 


25 


66-70 




8 5 


3 






16 


71-75 


2 


9 11 


3 


3 


3 


31 


76-80 




4 10 


3 


1 


1 


19 


81-85 




2 16 


4 


4 


2 


28 


86-90 


1 


1 6 


8 


6 


3 


25 


91-95 




1 8 


1 


7 


8 


25 


96-100 




1 3 


4 


6 


4 


18 


101-105 




3 


2 


4 


7 


16 


106-110 




1 3 


3 


2 


3 


12 


111-115 




1 


1 


3 


4 


9 


116-120 




1 


3 


1 


2 


7 


121-125 






1 


5 


2 


8 


126-130 






3 


1 


3 


7 


131-135 








3 


4 


7 


136-140 








1 


1 


2 


141-145 














146-150 














151-155 








1 




1 


Total 10 


3 6 


8 105 


42 


49 4 


8 


415 


Median score ... 3 


3.7 6 


2 75.3 


89 


98 10 


2.4 


72 


Median age 


9.1 1 


3.65 12.8 


13 


13.6 1 


4.6 





105 



Table 31. — Intelligence Examination: Delta 2. Two-Teacher Schools. 
Grades 3-8. Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and 
Median Age for Each Grade 





Grades 


Total 














2 




4 5 


6 ; 


f I 


5 







1 










1 


1-5 


7 












7 


6-10 


4 












4 


11-15 1 





2 1 










13 


16-20 


9 


2 2 










13 


21-25 


7 


4 1 










12 


26-30 1 


S 


4 










22 


31-35 1 


5 


6 3 










24 


36-40 1 


1 


6 4 










21 


41-45 


5 


8 5 










18 


46-50 1 


1 1 


2 6 


1 






30 


51-55 


8 


4 9 


5 


2 '. 




28 


56-60 


2 


4 10 


2 






18 


61-65 


2 


6 17 


6 


1 '. 




32 


66-70 


2 


7 8 


3 


3 




23 


71-75 


2 


3 6 


9 


3 


2 


25 


76-80 




2 8 


4 


3 


1 


18 


81-85 


i 


1 5 


5 


4 


4 


20 


86-90 




1 3 


6 1 





2 


22 


91-95 




2 


7 


6 


6 


21 


96-100 




1 


6 


5 


4 


16 


101-105 




3 


4 


4 


7 


18 


106-110 






2 


6 


6 


14 


111-115 






4 


2 


7 


13 


116-120 




! i 


2 


7 


7 


17 


121-125 




i 




3 


5 


9 


126-130 




i 


2 


2 


2 


7 


131-135 








1 


3 


4 


136-140 








1 


2 


3 


141-145 














146-150 








1 ! 




1 


Total 11 


5 


72 97 


68 t 


4 5 


8 


474 






Median score ... 3 


1.5 47 


.66 63.2 


85 5 


6 1C 


18.5 


65 


Median age 


9.6 


10.7 13.4 


12.8 lc 


1.8 14 


t.8 





106 



Table 32. — Intelligence Examination: Delta 2. One-Teacher Schools. 
Grades 3-8. Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and 
Age for Each Grade 





Grades 
















Totals 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 J 


\ 







1 1 










5 


1-5 1 


} 4 










23 


6-10 3 


3 5 


'2 








40 


11-15 5 


1 25 


1 








80 


16-20 6 


J 21 


5 








86 


21-25 5 


3 29 


10 


3 






100 


26-30 6 


1 51 


5 


3 






120 


31-35 3 


5 41 


11 


3 


2 '. 




92 


36-40 3 


1 59 


21 


7 


2 




123 


41-45 3 


i 48 


27 


10 


1 




120 


46-50 1 


7 45 


27 


15 


3 




107 


51-55 1 


3 45 


45 


13 


2 


1 


119 


56-60 1 


2- 42 


43 


19 


6 


1 


123 


61-65 


3 43 


47 


39 


16 


2 


150 


66-70 


3 15 


47 


44 


13 


6 


128 


71-75 


3 19 


41 


35 


10 


9 


117 


76-80 


2 15 


46 


48 


20 


5 


136 


81-85 


1 10 


18 


52 


25 1 


8 


124 


86-90 


5 


21 


38 


21 3 


7 


122 


91-95 


2 


18 


34 


46 3 


5 


135 


96-100 




11 


30 


24 2 


6 


101 


101-105 




3 


30 


24 2 


15 


92 


106-110 


1 


4 


27 


22 2 


9 


83 


111-115 




5 


9 


13 2 


.7 


54 


116-120 




1 


5 


13 1 


.6 


45 


121-125 




1 


9 


12 1 


3 


35 


126-130 






3 


7 1 


.1 


21 


131-135 






4 


7 


5 


16 


136-140 










5 


5 


141-145 










1 


1 


146-150 














151-155 














156-160 














161-165 








1 




1 


Total 44 


6 526 


460 


480 


290 3( 


)2 


2504 


Median score ... 2 


6 44 


65 


81 


94 1( 


)1 


64 


Median age S 


.6 10.5 


11.9 


12.8 


13.4 I- 


1.3 





107 



higher. Since the median score for grade 7, given in this same table, 
is 104 points, it appears that these 59 fifth graders are equal in 
ability to the average seventh grade pupil. Conversely, there are 



Table 33 . — Intelligence Examination : Delta 2 . Four- or More Teacher 
High Schools. Grades 9-12. Distribution of Scores by Grades. 
Median Score and Age for Each Grade 





Grades 


Totals 














9 


10 


11 


12 




66-70 


1 








1 


71-75 












76-80 


2 








2 


81-85 


5 




1 




6 


86-90 


8 




1 




9 


91-95 


10 


4 




1 


15 


96-100 


20 


1 


"l 


3 


26 


101-105 


17 


6 


1 


2 


26 


106-110 


26 


15 


4 


2 


47 


111-115 


36 


10 


5 


2 


53 


116-120 


50 


15 


4 


4 


73 


121-125 


52 


27 


6 


5 


90 


126-130 


50 


21 


21 


7 


99 


131-135 


48 


36 


18 


12 


114 


136-140 


38 


28 


22 


27 


115 


141-145 


46 


29 


20 


17 


112 


146-150 


26 


22 


22 


24 


94 


151-155 


11 


20 


12 


11 


54 


156-160 


4 


9 


7 


14 


34 


161-165 


1 


8 




7 


16 


166-170 




2 




5 


7 


171-175 




1 




1 


2 


Totals 


451 


254 


146 


144 


995 






Median score . . . 


125 


135 


136 


141 


133.2 


Median age 


15.1 


16.3 


17.1 


17.9 





60 seventh grade pupils who score below 75 points, which is the 
median score for grade 5. In terms of the abilities measured by 
this test it is obvious that these 60 seventh grade pupils are much 

108 



less capable of doing school work than are the 59 fifth graders noted 
above. Similar comparisons could be made for other grades and 
for schools of each type, as represented in the several tables, but 

Table 34. — Intelligence Examination: Delta 2. Fewer than Four- 
Teacher High Schools. Grades 9-12. Distribution of Scores by 
Grades. Median Score and Age for Each Grade 







Grades 








9 


10 


11 


12 




76-80 


2 


1 






3 


81-85 


2 








2 


86-90 


4 


1 






5 


91-95 


2 








2 


96-100 


12 




2 


1 


15 


101-105 


7 


3 


1 




11 


106-110 


19 


1 






20 


111-115 


13 


9 


1 


1 


24 


116-120 


27 


11 


2 


1 


41 


121-125 


22 


10 


4 


2 


38 


126-130 


22 


13 


9 


2 


46 


131-135 


23 


13 


8 


10 


54 


136-140 


17 


13 


13 


7 


50 


141-145 


8 


3 


8 


7 


26 


146-150 


5 


8 


7 


3 


23 


151-155 


1 


4 


3 


3 


11 


156-160 




4 


2 


2 


8 


161-165 




1 




2 


3 


Totals 


186 


95 


60 


41 


382 






Median score . . . 


122 


130 


136 


137 


129.2 


Median age 


15.4 


15.9 


17.3 


18 





since these facts are obvious in the tables themselves it does not 
seem necessary to stress them here. 

They are sufficiently illustrated by the percentile graphs shown in 
Figures 21-24, which present the figures of Tables 29-34 in graphic 
form. The points where the curves cross the heavy vertical lines 

109 



marked "50" in these figures indicate the median scores for the 
several grades. For all types of schools these points show distinct 
improvement in median scores from grade to grade. The extremes 
of the curves, however, greatly overlap the medians of grades below 
and above. Thus, in Figure 22 the sixth grade curve for one-room 




Figure 21. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Four-teacher schools. 
3 to 8. Percentile graph 



100% 
Grades 



schools shows the upper thirty percent of the distribution to be 
equal to or above the seventh grade median, and the lower thirty 
percent to be below the fifth grade median. The reader can observe 
similar interpretations for each of the curves in each figure. 



Overlapping 

It is possible to calculate the exact amount of overlapping shown 

by these tables. We can thus show the percent of each grade which 

equals or exceeds the median of the grade next above or falls short 

of the median of the grade next below. Such figures have been 

Score 
165 



150 
155 
120 
105 
90 
75 
60 







































































- ■ A 


1 , 


















O 

^^7 


i**-"^ 


















6 




















5 


U^ 


















A- 


\^- 


















•K 


1 


















D 


i^~~ 































10 
Figure 22 



20 30 40 50 60 



10 60 90 

Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. One-teacher schools. 
3 to 8. Percentile graph 



J00% 
Grades 



repeatedly published for various types of tests and for the Delta 2 
examination itself in the Virginia report. In this matter of over- 
lapping no great differences exist as between the several Virginia 
groups and the New York schools. The figures are also similar to 



data derived from 2323 children tested in Aberdeen, Baltimore, 
Cleveland, Evansville, Indianapolis, Louisville, Rochester, and 
Santa Anna. The overlapping in the case of these cities is 30.4 
percent for each grade, exceeding the median of the half -grade next 

Score 
170 



160 
150 

140 
130 
120 
110 
100 

SO 

80 

70 

60 


Figure 23 



















































S- 




















"3k 




















9 





































































































































20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 



Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Large high schools. 
9 to 12. Percentile graph 



100% 
Grades 



above it, and the amount of improvable classification is 76.6 percent 
as compared with 81.4 percent in Virginia cities. 

The assumption underlying such a statement of improvable classi- 
fication is that the Delta 2 scores are clear indications of ability to do 
school work. Such an assumption is subject to definite limitations, 



as has been repeatedly pointed out in recent literature. Even if the 
Delta 2 test were a complete measure of intelligence there are other 
factors contributing to school success than the skills evaluated by 
intelligence tests. Among such factors the non-intellectual traits of 

Score 
170 



160 
150 
140 
130 
120 
110 
100 

90 

80 

70 

60 o 

Figure 24. 







































































12 
10 


11^ 














































































































































j 









10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 



90 



-Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. Small high schools. 
9 to 12. Percentile graph 



100% 
Grades 



industry, perseverance, energy, social adaptations, as well as pre- 
vious school experience all play a part in school success. These 
factors are measured only indirectly by these tests, and results of 
intelligence examinations must always be interpreted with due 
reference to these facts. 



ii3 



In just how far such non-intellectual traits are measured indi- 
rectly by intelligence tests of the Delta 2 type is an unsolved prob- 
lem. It has been rather freely assumed in recent discussion that 
because intelligence tests fail of perfect correlation with school suc- 
cess, the tests do not measure character traits, and that the latter, 
acting as determinative factors, raise or lower school achievement 
so that school marks fail of high correlation with test scores. This 
may be true, but before we can conclude finally that such is the 
case, we must devise satisfactory measures for each of such char- 
acter traits, and then by statistical methods partial out the exact 
contribution which such traits make to school achievement. 

Some studies on this problem have already been made. Gates 1 
attempted to isolate "school attitude," a term descriptive of a 
complex of behavior, apparently composed of emotional as well as 
of intellectual elements. The results of his study seemed to show 
that in so far as school attitudes are determinative of school achieve- 
ment they are almost completely measured by intelligence tests. 

"The correlation of 'school attitude' with Achievement," he 
writes, "is little higher (.32) than that between school attitude and 
Group Tests. It is possible that this correlation with achievement 
is wholly, or almost wholly, due to the fact that ' School Attitude ' 
as judged by our teachers, and intelligence as measured by our 
tests are identical, in part. A careful study of the various partial 
correlations shows this to be true. When the elements of Mental 
Age and Group Tests which are identical with School Attitude are 
eliminated (r 14.23), the residual of school attitudes gives a correla- 
tion with Achievement of but 0.12. The unique factors add very 
little to a composite of Mental Age and Group Tests when each is 
properly weighted: the multiple r, achievement with (Mental Age 
-f- Group) is 0.605, and the multiple r, achievement with (Mental 
Age + Group X School Attitude) is 0.611. 

"It should not be considered that these facts greatly minimize the 
importance of school attitudes. The significant thing is that in so 
far as the school attitudes affect achievement in school work, they 
are almost completely measured by the intelligence tests. The 
Stanford-Binet measures these attitudes a little better than the 
1 Gates, Arthur I. Ibid. 
114 



group tests (the partial correlations r i 4 . 2 = 0.14, r 14.3 =» 0.21); 
both tests together account for them almost entirely." 

Admitting again the limitation upon the data here offered, it is 
still true, as experimental education has frequently demonstrated, 
that these high-scoring pupils in the lower grades are intellectually 
capable of the work of the higher grades and that the low-scoring 
pupils are usually doing less than mediocre work even though their 
school classification calls for something very much better. While 
the tests may be in error as regards an individual pupil, the error is 
not great when groups of individuals are considered. 

It may be pointed out at this place that intelligence test results 
are not equally useful for reclassification purposes at all stages of 
school progress. In the latter part of the seventh grade, for instance, 
the work depends so definitely upon the curricular content of the 
first half year that relocation of a pupil is attended with great diffi- 
culties. In passing from the third to the fourth grade the diffi- 
culties are much less, since a knowledge of exact curricular content 
is less important and general mental capacity plus silent reading 
ability is much greater. The introduction of intelligence tests for 
classification purposes should, therefore, be made with due regard to 
the nature of the school course. It would seem the part of wisdom 
to initiate their use at those points where the work to be undertaken 
was least dependent upon previously learned curricula and where 
the adjustments could be most easily made. This point in the 
school course will vary from school to school but in general it should 
be prior to the beginning of the seventh grade. As a matter of fact, 
the best place to begin the classification of pupils is in grades one, 
two, and three, so that classes arriving at the upper grades will be 
already homogeneous in character. 



Distributions in Miller Test 
The conditions of classification shown by the Delta 2 examina- 
tion are also revealed by the results of the Miller tests given in 
Tables 35-36 for grades 9 to 12 inclusive, for large and small high 
schools. The percentile graphs are given in Figures 25 and 26. Both 
from the tables and the figures it is obvious that there is great over- 

115 



lapping of ability for these several grades. There are many first 
year high school pupils who, in the abilities measured by these tests, 



Table 35. — Miller Mental Ability Test. Large High Schools. Grades 
9-12. Distribution or Scores by Grades. Median Score for Each 
Grade 







Grades 




Total 














9 


10 


11 


12 

















1-5 












6-10 












11-15 




"l 






"l 


16-20 


■2 




1 




3 


21-25 




"l 


1 




3 


26-30 


10 






i 


11 


31-35 


9 




"l 




11 


36-40 


19 


'3 


1 




23 


41-45 


20 


11 


2 




33 


46-50 


25 


12 


5 




42 


51-55 


37 


17 


6 


"l 


62 


56-60 


49 


22 


12 


1 


84 


61-65 


45 


18 


7 


7 


77 


66-70 


59 


30 


9 


6 


104 


71-75 


43 


29 


18 


16 


106 


76-80 


39 


31 


22 


20 


112 


81-85 


38 


26 


26 


22 


112 


86-90 


27 


27 


19 


14 


87 


91-95 


21 


16 


9 


24 


70 


96-100 


6 


14 


17 


17 


54 


101-105 


1 


5 


4 


10 


20 


106-110 




3 


1 


4 


8 


111-115 








2 


2 


Total 


450 


268 


162 


146 


1,026 


Median age 


15.2 


16.3 


17.1 


17.9 




Median score. . . 


67 


74 


80 


85 


74 



are the equals or the superiors of pupils in the second, third and even 
in fourth year classes. 

116 



It may not be inferred, however, that these conditions can be 
remedied by a radical reclassification of these high school pupils 



Table 36. — Miller Mental Ability Test. Small High Schools. Grades 
9-12. Distribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score for Each 
Grade 





Grades 










lotal 




9 ] 


L0 11 1 


L2 











1-5 








6-10 








11-15 








16-20 


1 




1 


21-25 


2 




2 


26-30 


3 




3 


31-35 


6 


1 


8 


36-40 


6 




8 


41^5 


4 


1 1 


10 


46-50 


22 


3 


27 


51-55 


15 


5 1 


1 27 


56-60 


19 


3 6 


2 32 


61-65 


21 


7 -5 


4 34 


66-70 


24 


9 9 


2 52 


71-75 


19 ] 


L4 4 


6 44 


76-80 


16 1 


9 8 


4 48 


81-85 


13 


9 7 


1 31 


86-90 


12 1 


[3 10 1 


37 


91-95 


8 ] 


[2 7 


7 27 


96-100 


2 


2 5 


5 9 


101-105 




1 2 


2 3 


106-110 




1 


2 1 


111-115 




1 


1 


Total 


193 < 


)9 67 i 


16 405 






Median age 


15.4 ] 


16 17.2 1 


L8.1 


Median score. . . 


65 


!& 80 i 


J8 70.8 



following tests such as these. The place in high school where tests 
results such as these can be most usefully employed is at high school 



117 



entrance. In general, pupils begin here a new set of subjects. 
Foreign language, science, mathematics, literature, history — if not 
begun here, are, at least, approached in a new way. Aside from the 
rudiments of the elementary subjects and a basic mastery of English, 

Score 



110 
100 
90 
W 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 

zo 

ml 


























































































^\o 




















' 9 

















































































































10 20 30 40 50 60 70 



Figure 25. — Miller Mental Ability. Large high schools. 

centile graph 



50 90 100% 
Grades 9-12. Per- 



much that is taught in the upper grammar grades is not prerequi- 
site in a strict sense to the pursuit of the new high school subjects. 
General intelligence, therefore, determines more largely than might 
otherwise be the case just what scholastic hurdles these first year 
high school students can really go over successfully. If the intelli- 

n8 



gence factor is given careful consideration in the grouping of stu- 
dents at the beginning and during the first year, and in prescribing 
curricula, the later high school grouping will be provided for in a 
better way. 



Score 
120 



110 

100 
90 

to 

70 
60 
50 

40 
30 
20 
10 



















































1? 








<^-*"' 












— to 

A 




,.#<** 


..-**"" 




-/■ — 






.* 

<^:* 


/> 


£>to 




* 
^ 


* 








/> 


^ 




Q 


^ 










// 


V 


S 

S 
















// 
*/ 

' 1 

/ y 


/ 


















1 1 
1 




















i 









































20 



30 40 50 60 70 80 SO 100%> 



Figure 26.— Miller Mental Ability. Small high schools. Grades 9-12. Per- 
centile graph 



Intelligence and Reading Scores Combined 
Data similar to that from the Delta 2 and Miller examinations 
are available also from the Sigma 3 tables given in Chapter III, and 
from the percentile graph figures printed there. (Seepage 37 ff.) 



119 



The scores for the Delta 2 and Sigma 3 are combined in Tables 37-38. 
In these tables the strictures on the adequacy of a single examina- 

Table 37. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examina- 
tion, Sigma 3, Form B: Four-Teacher Elementary Schools. Grades 
5 to 8. Large High Schools, Grade 9. Distribution of Combined 
Scores by Grades. Median Score for Each Grade 





Grades 


Score 














5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


31-40 


19 










41-50 


10 










51-60 


22 


i4 








61-70 


30 


16 


"l 






71-80 


39 


14 




i 




81-90 


45 


20 


*5 






91-100 


65 


38 


5 


1 




101-110 


68 


43 


19 




i 


111-120 


69 


45 


25 


9 


2 


121-130 


57 


59 


31 


10 


2 


131-140 


52 


71 


29 


18 


1 


141-150 


46 


64 


46 


29 


9 


151-160 


35 


59 


47 


33 


4 


161-170 


35 


56 


45 


46 


L8 


171-180 


26 


43 


53 


49 : 


25 


181-190 


16 


41 


48 


56 : 


29 


191-200 


10 


22 


48 


53 


58 


201-210 


7 


28 


40 


63 


35 


211-220 


5 


19 


40 


45 


56 


221-230 


5 


10 


29 


42 


57 


231-240 


1 


9 


8 


36 


13 


241-250 


1 


5 


14 


29 


14 


251-260 




4 


4 


19 


33 


261-270 






5 


8 


24 


271-280 








4 


10 


281-290 










3 


291-300 










4 


301-310 










1 


Totals 


663 


680 


543 


551 4 


39 






Medians 


115.4 


143.5 


174.35 


195.0 2 


20.9 



tion are to a degree removed. Here we have two examinations 
which we know measure to some extent the same and to some extent 



different abilities, which involve a second examination and which 
total over an hour of the pupil's time. To a great degree, however, 

Table 38. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examina- 
tion, Sigma 3, Form B : One-Teacher Elementary Schools. Grades 5-8. 
Small High Schools, Grade 9. Distribution of Combined Scores by 
Grades. Median Score for Each Grade 





Grades 




Score 












6 




J 8 < 


) 


41-50 2 


4 


10 




1 




51-60 2 


7 


6 




2 




61-70 4 


3 


11 




2 




71-80 5 


6 


22 




5 2 




81-90 6 





37 




8 1 




91-100 6 


2 


38 




7 4 




101-110 5 


3 


53 


1 


2 7 




111-120 3 


7 


47 


2 


3 8 




121-130 3 


1 


51 


2 


6 18 


3 


131-140 2 


3 


34 


2 


8 24 


1 


141-150 1 


9 


36 


3 


29 


6 


151-160 1 





28 


2 


4 32 


8 


161-170 1 


2 


26 


3 


1 31 


7 


171-180 


4 


23 


1 


3 29 1 


3 


181-190 


1 


7 


1 


2 29 1 


6 


191-200 


2 


14 


1 


1 21 2 


5 


201-210 


1 


6 


1 


1 26 2 


2 


211-220 


1 


3 




7 4 1 


8 


221-230 




3 




7 6 1 


4 


231-240 








5 6 1 


9 


241-250 




3 




1 1 


4 


251-260 










1 


7 


261-270 










1 


2 


271-280 












4 


281-290 














291-300 














301-310 












2 


311-320 














Total 46 


6 


458 


26 


5 280 18 


1 


Median 9 


5 


12 


2 


14 


8 166 20 


6 



the tables appear similar to those showing the distributions for each 
of the examinations separately. 



How definite is the increase of scores from grade to grade and 
yet how great is the overlapping of the several grades appear 



Score 
310 



290 
270 
250 
230 
210 
190 
170 
150 
130 
110 
90 
70 
50 



























































































9 




















8 




















7 








































6 




















5 





























































































10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 

Figure 27. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, 
Sigma 3, Form B. Four-teacher elementary schools, Grades 5-8, and large 
high schools, Grade 9. Percentile graph 



graphically in Figures 27 and 28, in which the data of these tables 
are turned into percentile graphs. 
The very considerable amount of overlapping for the intermediate 



Score 















































































































a 








































6 




















7 




















6 








































3 





















































10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% 

Figure 28. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, 
Sigma 3, Form B. One- teacher elementary schools, Grades 5-8, and small 
high schools, Grade 9. Percentile graph 

123 



and upper grades is even on these combined scores shown in Table 
39. It may not be inferred that the total overlapping shown in this 
table is improvable classification except in so far as these two tests 
are complete measures of ability to do the work of these grades. As 
repeatedly noted already, there are other factors to be considered. 
It is, however, clear beyond question that the abilities represented 
by these scores are exceedingly important matters and that the 
amount of overlapping here shown is an objective fact of serious 
import for the instructional problems in these schools. 

Table 39.— Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examina- 
tion, Sigma 3. Combined Scores. Overlapping of Grades. One- and 
Four-Teacher Elementary Schools. Grades 5 to 8. Small and Large 
High Schools, Grade 9. Percentage of Pupils in Each Grade Above 
the Median of Grade Next Above, and Percentage of Pupils in Each 
Grade Below Median of Grade Next Below 



Overlapping in 


Grades 


Averages 


percentages 


5-6 


6-7 


7-8 


8-9 


One-room f 
school . \ 

Four-room \ 
school . . \ 


Upward 
Downward 
Upward 
Downward 


20.8 
22.0 
25.4 
23.9 


26.2 
23.6 
24.0 
23.9 


29.5 
31.1 

29.3 
30.2 


8.6 
12.2 
24.2 

25.2 


21.7 
23.0 

25.5 
25.7 


One-room . . 


Totals 


42.8 


49.8 


60.6 


20.8 




Four-room . 


Totals 


49.3 


47.9 


59.5 


49.4 





An Individual School 
The data so far given do not necessarily represent any particular 
school. They are combinations for all the pupils tested in certain 
school districts. In the several schools these pupils are grouped 
into separate classes, rarely, if ever, exceeding 40 pupils in any group. 
It is possible that in these smaller groups there is less overlapping 
and it will, therefore, be desirable to examine an individual school 
with this in mind. In Tables 40-42 are given the distributions for 
the several grades in one school for the Delta 2 scores, the Sigma 3 

124 



scores and for the two combined, and in Table 43 is shown the over- 
lapping in terms comparable with that for the whole state given in 
Table 39. 



Table 40. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 : Distribution and 
Median Scores for All Pupils in Grades 4 to 8 Inclusive in One School 
(Rye, Number 1) 







Grades 






Scores 








Total 














4 




6 




7 8 




1-5 














6-10 


















11-15 


















16-20 


















21-25 


















26-30 


1 












1 


31-35 


1 


1 










2 


36-40 


2 


2 










4 


41-45 


2 












2 


46-50 


7 


1 










8 


51-55 


3 


1 










4 


56-60 


5 


2 










7 


61-65 


5 


4 










9 


66-70 


6 


2 


' 2 






10 


71-75 


5 


7 


1 






13 


76-80 


4 


5 


2 






11 


81-85 


6 


5 


1 






12 


86-90 


5 


6 


2 




3 1 


17 


91-95 


7 


8 


6 




2 


23 


96-100 


1 


7 


6 




7 1 


22 


101-105 


1 


1 


4 




5 1 


12 


106-110 




5 


2 




4 1 


12 


111-115 




4 


5 




3 5 


17 


116-120 


2 




4 




4 7 


17 


121-125 






1 




4 7 


12 


126-130 






2 




2 7 


11 


131-135 












2 6 


8 


136-140 












5 


5 


141-145 












1 5 


6 


146-150 












1 


1 


151-155 












1 


1 


Total 


63 6 


1 


38 




57 48 


247 


Median score. . . . 


69.6 8 


5.4 


99.1 


1( 


)6.9 126.0 


96.0 



125 



Even here, however, in a school, which may rightly be regarded as 
above the average of those examined in New York state, there is the 

Table 41. — Reading Examination. Sigma 3, Form B: Distribution and 
Median Scores for All Pupils in Grades 5 to 8 Inclusive in One 
School (Rye, Number 1) 





Grades 


T* * jlI 


Scores 








lotai 


E 




6 


7 


8 


1-5 










6-10 


i 






1 


11-15 


4 






4 


16-20 


2 


1 




3 


21-25 


2 


1 




3 


26-30 


7 


3 




10 


31-35 


4 


3 


1 


8 


36-40 


5 


2 


3 


10 


41-45 


9 


1 


3 


13 


46-50 


4 


4 


1 


9 


51-55 


7 


3 


1 


11 


56-60 


1 


4 




5 


61-65 


1 


5 


1 


3 11 


66-70 


3 


1 


4 


3 11 


71-75 


6 


2 


6 


1 15 


76-80 


2 


2 


3 


2 9 


81-85 




2 


3 


3 8 


86-90 




1 


3 


6 10 


91-95 




3 


2 


10 15 


96-100 






1 


5 6 


101-105 








2 


3 5 


106-110 








1 


5 6 


111-115 










1 1 


116-120 








1 


4 5 


121-125 










1 1 


126-130 










1 1 


131-135 












Total 5 


8 


38 


37 


18 181 






Median score ... A 


2.2 


57.2 


73.9 


U 67.1 



same evidence of overlapping abilities to do school work. The 
amount of overlapping is less when measured by the combined 
scores, but it is still very great. 

126 



It would seem that the situation is in part improvable by a single 
school administrator who has under his control all the factors con- 
tributing to the proper classification of pupils within a single school 

Table 42. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examina- 
tion, Sigma 3, Form B: Distribution and Median Scores for Two 
Tests Combined for All Pupils in Grades 5 to 8 Inclusive for One 
School (Rye, Number 1) 





Grades 


Scores 










5 6 


7 


8 


41-50 


1 






51-60 


2 






61-70 


1 






71-80 


2 






81-90 


3 1 






91-100 


3 1 






101-110 


6 1 






111-120 \ 


1 4 




1 


121-130 


4 2 


"l 




131-140 


8 2 


2 




141-150 


4 4 


1 


1 


151-160 


3 4 


3 




161-170 


3 7 


3 


1 


171-180 


2 3 


6 


3 


181-190 


5 2 


5 


5 


191-200 


1 1 


6 


1 


201-210 


2 


1 


6 


211-220 


3 


1 


6 


221-230 


1 


4 


8 


231-240 






5 


241-250 




2 


3 


251-260 






4 


261-270 






3 


271-280 






1 


Total 1 


59 38 


36 


48 






Median score 12 


21 161 


182 


221 



district. Individual teachers and superintendents may solve the 
problem in part. It remains true, even though individual teachers 
and superintendents do secure improved conditions in individual 

127 



schools or in small school districts, that a state-wide survey would 
reveal the same wide range of abilities within similarly designated 
grades owing to the variability of standards from school to school 
and from district to district. These considerations raise questions 
of school organization over wide territorial districts, such as city, 
county and state. 



Table 43. — Percent of Overlapping of Grades in One School (Rye, 
Number 1). Intelligence Examination, Delta 2; Reading Examina- 
tion, Sigma 3. Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, Plus Reading 
Examination, Sigma 3 



Grades 


4-5 


5-6 


6-7 


7-8 


Average 


Delta 2 / D O wnward 
Delta I ^ Upward 


20 

25 


16 

18 


30 
36 


6 
14 


17 
23 


Total 

c . , / Downward 
Sigma 3 ( Upward 


45 


34 

26 
22 


66 

24 
24 


20 

13 
17 


40 

20 
21 


Total 

Delta 2 and f Downward 
Sigma 3 \ Upward 




48 

18 
20 


48 

13 
21 


30 

10 

8 


41 

13.6 
16.3 


Total 




38 


34 


18 


29.9 



128 



CHAPTER VI 
SCHOOL PROGRESS 

THE implications of these tests for purposes of school classifica- 
tion are closely connected with the problem of school progress* 
As bearing upon this problem it will be interesting to consider 
the mental-age-grade tables printed herewith (Tables 44-44c). The 
ages in these tables are based upon the scores made by more than 
7000 pupils in elementary and high schools. The "mental age" of 
each child is determined by the table of age norms shown on page 90. 
The first column should read: "There were in grades three, 21 
pupils of the chronological age of 7 years, i. e., having passed 
their seventh but not their eighth birthday, and 42 pupils of the 
mental age of 7, and in grade four, one pupil of chronological age 
of 7 and 31 of the mental age of 7, etc. Of the chronological age of 
8 years there were 142 pupils in grade 3, etc., " to the bottom of the 
table. The bottom of the table should be read: " Of 412 children in 
grade 3, the median chronological age is 9.2 years, with an average 
deviation of .9 year, and the median mental age is 8.8 with an 
average deviation of .6 year," etc. 

Progress in Mental and Chronological Ages 
The first important fact to be observed in Table 44 is the progress 
in mental age recorded from grade to grade. Except for the inter- 
val from grades 7 to 8, the step-up exceeds a year. The successive 
intervals in terms of mental years are as follows: 1.1, 1.4, 1.4, 1.3, 
.8. The total mental-age progress from grade 3 to grade 8 is 6 years. 
The intervals of chronological age for the group are as follows: 1.3, 
1.1, .9, 1, .9, with a total chronological-age progress of 5.2 years. 
Superficially, these comparative figures might indicate that, while 
pupils were making a progress of 5.2 years in chronological age, they 
were making a mental-age progress of 6 years. The more plausible 
explanation is that the upper grades hold a smaller proportion of 
9 129 



dull children, so that the greater apparent increase in mental age is 
really an effect of elimination. This interpretation is supported by 
the smaller increase in both mental and chronological age from 
grade 7 to grade 8. 

Table 44. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 : Four-Teacher Ele- 
mentary Schools. Grades 3-8. Age-Grade Distribution in Terms of 
Chronological and Mental Ages. Medians and Average Deviations 
Given for Both Chronological and Mental Ages in Each Grade 





Grades 


Years 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 




C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


7 


21 


42 


1 


31 




7 














8 


142 


190 


13 


142 


1 


59 




io 




3 






9 


140 


104 


235 


204 


27 


105 




35 




8 




2 


10 


64 


45 


195 


154 


170 


110 


29 


74 


5 


23 




3 


11 


24 


20 


145 


90 


207 


136 


190 


108 


24 


57 




16 


12 


14 


9 


70 


70 


122 


110 


233 


162 


166 


88 


43 


51 


13 


6 


2 


47 


29 


78 


78 


135 


127 


170 


113 


138 


94 


14 






17 


6 


46 


42 


85 


101 


139 


126 


208 


125 


15 


1 




4 


2 


17 


12 


32 


46 


70 


77 


112 


97 


16 






1 




1 


6 


8 


23 


12 


50 


47 


70 


17 












4 


1 


11 


1 


21 


14 


38 


18 
















5 




9 


4 


30 


19 
















5 




6 




15 


20 




















6 




25 


Totals 


412 


412 


728 


728 


669 


669 


713 


713 


587 


587 


566 


566 


Median 


9.2 


8.8 


10.5 


9.9 


11.6 


11.3 


12.5 


12.7 


13.5 


14 


14.4 


14.8 


Average devia- 


























tion 




1.0 


1.2 


1.0 


1.5 


.9 


1.5 


.9 


1.6 


.8 


1..V 



Passing to Table 44a, which gives the mental-age-grade distribu- 
tion for one-teacher schools, it will be seen that the progress from 
grade to grade is less than for four-teacher schools. The figures for 
the several intervals are .8, 1.4, 1.4, 1 and .7, or a total of 5.3 years 



130 



from grade 3 to grade 8, which is .7 year less than for four- teacher 
schools. As compared with the increase in chronological age the 
mental age increase here, as in the case of four-teacher schools, is 
greater. The figures for the grade intervals are .9, 1.4, .9, .6, .9, or 

Table 44a. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. One-Teacher Ele- 
mentary Schools. Grades 3-8. Age-Grade Distribution in Terms of 
Chronological and Mental Ages. Medians and Average Deviation 
Given for Both Chronological and Mental Ages in Each Grade 





Grade 


Years 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 




C.A. 


M.A 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


6 


3 
























7 


20 


158 


2 


52 




7 














8 


120 


207 


40 


193 


2 


52 


1 


18 




4 






9 


131 


61 


131 


145 


34 


110 


2 


44 




9 






10 


99 


13 


156 


81 


85 


112 


30 


85 


4 


30 


1 




11 


35 


t 


103 


41 


119 


99 


106 


102 


25 


37 


10 


20 


12 


18 


1 


53 


13 


115 


48 


159 


101 


74 


69 


27 


72 


13 


15 




24 




50 


19 


86 


68 


91 


61 


75 


78 


14 


4 




11 


1 


36 


10 


65 


42 


64 


40 


106 


63 


15 


1 




4 




15 


3 


29 


12 


28 


23 


60 


37 


16 






2 




2 




2 


5 


2 


11 


18 


13 


17 










1 






3 


1 


5 


5 


6 


18 










1 








1 






4 


19 
























1 


20 




















1 






Totals 


446 


446 


526 


526 


460 


460 


480 


480 


290 


290 


302 


302 


Median 


9.6 


8.3 


10.5 


9.1 


11.9 


10.5 


12.8 


11.9 


13.4 


12.9 


14.3 


13.6 


Average devia- 


























tion 


1.0 


.6 


1.0 


.97 


1.2 


1.1 


1.0 


1.4 


.9 


1.5 


.9 


1.1 



a total of 4.7 chronological years. The most plausible explanation 

for the discrepancy is again the elimination of the duller pupils. 

A comparison of the median chronological and mental ages of the 

two types of schools shows the larger schools to have a distinct 

131 



advantage. The medians for the several grades arranged for easy 
comparison appear as follows: 





Grades 




3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 




C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


Medians ' Large school. 
Medians | Small school . 


9.2 
9.6 


8.8 
8.3 


10.5 
10.5 


9.9 
9.1 


11.6 
11.9 


11.3 

10.5 


12.5 
12.8 


12.7 
11.9 


13.5 
13.4 


14 
12.9 


14.4 
14.3 


14.8 
13.6 


Differences in medians. . 


.4 


.5 





.8 


.3 


.8 


.3 


.8 


•• 


1.1 


.1 


1.2 



Table 44b. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 : Four or More Teacher 
High Schools. Grades 9-12. Age-Grade Distribution in Terms of 
Chronological and Mental Ages. Median and Average Deviation 
Given for Both Chronological and Mental Ages in Each Grade 





Grade 


Years 


9 


10 


11 


12 




C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


10 




1 














11 


2 


6 








1 






12 


15 


15 




3 




1 




1 


13 


52 


38 


2 


7 




3 




5 


14 


142 


65 


27 


26 


2 


9 




4 


15 


121 


102 


68 


42 


15 


10 




9 


16 


78 


69 


86 


36 


48 


28 


19 


13 


17 


30 


59 


41 


43 


53 


29 


58 


28 


18 


9 


52 


26 


35 


20 


24 


43 


22 


19 


2 


26 


4 


22 


5 


22 


12 


24 


20 




16 




40 


2 


19 


11 


38 


21 










1 




1 




Total 


451 


449 


254 


254 


146 


146 


144 


144 






Median 


15.1 


15.9 


16.3 


17.3 


17.1 


17.7 


17.9 


18.5 






Average deviation 


1.1 


1.7 


.9 


1.7 


.9 


1.5 


.9 


1.6 



132 



The advantage of the larger schools is never less than a half- 
mental-year and rises to 1.2 years in grade 8. 

The selective character of the high school is indicated by the 
median scores in Tables 44b and 44c. The lowest ninth grade median 
is 15.6 mental years, .8 year above the median mental age of the 



Table 44c— Intelligence Examination, Delta 2: Fewer Than Four- 
Teacher High Schools. Grades 9-12. Age-Grade Distribution in 
Terms of Chronological and Mental Ages. Median and Average 
Deviation Given for Both Chronological and Mental Ages in Each 
Grade 





Grade 


Years 


9 


10 


11 


12 




C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


C.A. 


M.A. 


11 


1 


3 




1 










12 


3 


7 




1 










13 


20 


18 


3 


3 


1 


3 




1 


14 


44 


33 


11 


10 


1 


1 




1 


15 


62 


49 


34 


21 


5 


6 


2 


3 


16 


33 


33 


22 


20 


17 


14 


7 


6 


17 


16 


23 


13 


15 


20 


12 


11 


11 


18 


5 


14 


7 


7 


10 


12 


11 


9 


19 


2 


5 


4 


8 


5 


7 


7 


3 


20 




1 




9 




5 


2 


7 


21 






1 




1 




1 




Total 


186 


186 


95 


95 


60 


60 


41 


41 






Median 


15.4 


15.6 


15.9 


16.5 


17.3 


17.5 


18. 


17.8 


Average deviation 


1.0 


1.3 


1.1 


1.5 


1.0 


1.4 


1.1 


1.3 



better eighth grade group. For the larger high schools it is 15.9, or 
1.1 years above the better eighth grade. The difference in chrono- 
logical age between the same groups is .7 year. The larger high 
schools prune the freshman class, as is evidenced by the step-up of 



133 



1.4 years from grade 9 to grade 10, and continue the process through 
succeeding grades, reaching a median mental score of 18.5 years in 
grade 12, with a median chronological age of 17.9 years, a total 
increase of 2.6 years in mental age and 2.8 years in chronological 
age. The smaller high schools do not reach this level, showing an 
increase of but 2.2 mental years from the lower freshman score of 
15.6 years to a twelfth grade median of 17.8 years. 

Spread of Mental and Chronological Ages 
A second observation to be made on these age-grade data pertains 
to the range in ages as expressed in the average deviations. (See 
Table 44.) In grade 3 the deviation in chronological age, .9 years, 
is greater than that in mental age, .6 years. This relation is re- 
versed in grade 4 and in every higher grade, reaching the maximum 
difference in grade 8. This wider range in mental age in grade 8 is 
an evidence that the school classification gives greater play to chrono- 
logical age than to differential mental ability. The higher grades 
have dragged along through lock-step promotion schemes the duller 
pupils, crediting "years spent" more highly than mental growth. 
Thus the eighth grade has no pupils under a chronological age of 12 
years, but it has 21 pupils with a lower mental age. At the same 
time the mental capacities of the brighter pupils stretch out beyond 
their years, but the lock-step holds them back. The eighth grade 
has but 65 pupils beyond a chronological age of fifteen years, but it 
has 178 pupils who exceed a mental age of fifteen years. 

In the case of the one-teacher schools the differences in range of 
chronological age and mental age are not so unequal, but here also 
the pupils in every grade but the third are more unlike in mental 
capacities than they are in actual years. 

Retardation of Superior Students 
The matter of school progress may be further considered in con- 
nection with the age-score tables given on pages 135-136, where the 
Delta 2 scores are given for all pupils by ages. Similar tables were 
given for the Sigma 3 results in Chapter III. Not all ages are 
adequately represented in these tables, due to the selective character 
of the school program, which keeps certain pupils more than a year 

134 



to a grade and allows many to drop out as they grow older. The 
twelve-year-olds, however, are mostly in school and it is fair to 
assume that we have for this age a fairly unselected group of such 
pupils in the districts tested. 

Table 45. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 : Four-Teacher Element- 
ary Schools and All High Schools. Grades 3-12. Distribution of 
Scores by Ages. Median Score for Each Age 





7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 1 


5 


16 


17 


18 1 


9 


20 


21 


Total 



1-5 


2 






2 


i 




'4 


















9 


6-10 




I 


3 


4 


2 


1 




















11 


11-15 


1 


4 


1 


8 


3 


4 


2 


1 
















24 


16-20 




9 


6 


11 


13 


3 


1 


2 
















45 


21-25 


1 


12 


17 


12 


5 


9 


10 


3 
















69 


26-30 


3 


18 


18 


12 


23 


8 


3 


5 
















90 


31-35 


1 


13 


24 


19 


13 


18 


10 


4 


2 














105 


36-40 


1 


20 


27 


18 


17 


11 


10 


4 


3 














111 


41-45 


6 


11 


27 


25 


27 


11 


10 


9 


3 














129 


46-50 


3 


13 


32 


26 


28 


20 


15 


5 


2 


2 












146 


51-55 


2 


13 


36 


25 


28 


22 


11 


9 


4 














150 


56-60 




5 


28 


32 


18 


20 


22 


13 


8 














146 


61-65 




11 


31 


27 


34 


26 


19 


12 


5 


1 












166 


66-70 


2 


10 


32 


33 


34 


26 


26 


18 


7 


4 












192 


71-75 




7 


19 


35 


34 


36 


20 


18 1 


2 


4 












185 


76-80 




1 


22 


29 


29 


32 


17 


28 


8 


4 


3 










173 


81-85 




3 


18 


22 


41 


46 


30 


16 1 


3 


6 


1 


1 








197 


86-90 




3 


18 


26 


33 


30 


31 


30 1 


9 


8 


6 










204 


91-95 




1 


17 


31 


42 


27 


51 


30 1 


6 


12 


1 


2 


1 






232 


96-100 




1 


14 


16 


28 


33 


36 


39 2 


9 


18 


6 


3 


3 




2 


228 


101-105 






2 


14 


42 


38 


28 


37 • 


4 


20 


6 


5 


1 






227 


106-110 






5 


6 


25 


44 


39 


56 2 


8 


19 


11 


13 


1 






248 


111-115 






3 


12 


17 


46 


47 


47 ■ 


3 


22 


13 


5 


2 




1 


248 


116-120 






2 


7 


15 


38 


30 


61 • 


6 


25 


21 


10 


1 






246 


121-125 








4 


9 


29 


46 


60 2 


9 


34 


17 


8 1 





3 




249 


126-130 








2 


17 


30 


41 


42 3 


2 


35 


26 


15 


7 






247 


131-135 








3 


10 


16 


29 


48 A 


5 


40 


26 


19 


3 


2 




241 


136-140 










2 


16 


31 


39 ; 


4 


24 


29 


17 


6 


5 




203 


141-145 








1 


1 


7 


25 


31 3 





23 


28 


14 


4 


2 


2 


168 


146-150 










2 


5 


12 


19 2 


2 


24 


29 


12 


5 


1 


1 


132 


151-155 












4 


4 


13 


8 


17 


8 


6 


3 






73 


156-160 














2 


7 


8 


7 


16 


5 








45 


161-165 
















3 


6 


2 


7 


2 








20 


166-170 


















2 


2 


3 










7 


171-175 




















1 


1 










2 


Total 


22 


156 


402 


462 


593 


656 


662 


709 41 


58 


355 


258 


137 4 


17 


15 


6 


4968 


Median 


42.5 


41.4 


57.8 


67.5 


78.8 


92.0 


101.5 


112.7 1 


8.5 


125.6 


134.5 


132.7 12 


9.5 


136.5 




98.2 



A study of the data in Table 45 shows that 25 percent of the 
twelve-year-olds in larger schools score as high as the median child 
of grade 8. An examination of the distribution of twelve-year-olds 
throughout these schools shows that only 10 percent are to be found 
in the eighth grade. There are 15 percent of the twelve-year-olds, 

i35 



therefore, who have the median ability of grade 8 but who are in the 
lower grades. (See Table 46.) Even though they are grouped in 
these lower grades, many of them are doing superior school work, 
achieving results distinctly above the achievement of the grades 

Table 45 a. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2: One-Teacher Schools. 
Grades 3-8. Distribution of Scores by Ages. Median Score for Each 
Age 













Ages 


































Totals 


6 


7 8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 1 


8 





1 .. 


2 










2 








5 


1-5 


2 5 


6 


8 






2 










. 23 


6-10 


2 7 1 


3 


9 


6 


2 


1 










40 


11-15 


3 14 : 


11 


25 


8 


4 


4 


i 








80 


16-20 1 


3 17 : 


13 


15 


13 


4 


4 


3 


1 


i 




1 86 


21-25 


4 23 : 


13 


22 


11 


9 


3 


3 


2 






. 100 


26-30 


2 23 ; 


\2 


22 


21 


11 


4 


4 


2 






. 121 


31-35 


..15 1 


9 


25 


11 


13 


5 


3 


2 






93 


36-40 1 


..14 : 


>8 


21 


23 


13 


14 


7 


6 






. 127 


41-45 1 


2 13 : 


!1 


27 


21 


16 


10 


3 


3 


i 




. 118 


46-50 


2 8 1 


8 


27 


17 


15 


5 


10 


5 


l 


i ! 


. 109 


51-55 


..6 1 


8 


27 


19 


28 


14 


9 


1 


i 


1 


. 124 


56-60 


1 7 1 


4 


26 


24 


.26 


9 


9 


3 




1 


. 120 


61-65 


..2 1 


9 


32 


27 


29 


21 


13 


10 






1 154 


66-70 


.. 2 


8 


14 


21 


28 


25 


19 


9 


"2 


i 


. 129 


71-75 


.. 1 1 





16 


22 


31 


16 


14 


5 


1 




. 116 


76-80 


..2 1 


1 


12 


31 


37 


15 


15 


5 


2 


i 


. 131 


81-85 




2 


11 


31 


27 


23 


25 


10 


1 




. 131 


86-90 




5 


11 


22 


28 


23 


19 


14 


3 




. 126 


91-95 




1 


9 


31 


33 


25 


30 


9 


1 


i 


. 141 


96-100 






5 


19 


26 


21 


20 


16 


3 




. 110 


101-105 






3 


18 


24 


17 


21 


9 


2 




. 95 


106-110 






4 


19 


16 


26 


15 


7 


1 


i '. 


91 


111-115 






1 


10 


6 


17 


4 


4 


1 


1 


45 


116-120 






1 


9 


7 


14 


10 


6 


1 




48 


121-125 






1 


2 


5 


11 


9 


4 


1 




. 33 


126-130 






1 


6 


3 


4 


4 


1 


3 


i 


. 23 


131-135 








5 


4 


5 


2 


1 






17 


136-140 










1 


2 


2 








5 


141-145 
















i 






1 


146-150 
























151-155 
























156-160 
























161-165 
















i 






! i 


166-170 . . 
























Total 3 


22 162 2 


98 


375 


447 


446 


340 


276 


137 


26 


9 


2 2543 


Median 


21 29.2 : 


7.78 


48.5 


71.3 


75.1 


84.9 


85.75 


87.6 


88.75 


78.5 . 


. 65.0 



in which they are found and equal to the average of eighth grades in 
most schools. Thus, a twelve-year-old girl in grade 5 scores a total 
of 125 points in four achievement tests, a record which is equaled by 
only 15 percent of the eighth grade pupils in Erie County. Another 

136 



fifth grade child scores 124 in the same group of tests. Similar cases 
could be cited at length. There are some cases where the achieve- 
ment scores are too low to be comparable with the record made in 
the intelligence tests, and it is a serious educational question 
whether or not these high scoring pupils would not be doing a higher 
grade of school work were they classified with pupils of better 
achievement. 

In the case of the larger schools 32 percent of the twelve-year-olds 
are in grade 7 and above, whereas the scores of twelve-year-olds 
require just 32 percent to be in grade 7. From these figures it 
would appear that the schools are sensitive to superior ability on the 
part of pupils to some degree since they allow this large group to 
make better than normal progress. This 32 percent who are in 
grade 7 contain some pupils of the highest ability whose intelligence 
scores would allow them to be in grade 8 or above. Were these most 
gifted pupils so far advanced the percentage in grade 7 would fall to 
less than 20 percent. It is apparent, therefore, that the actual 
acceleration even to grade 7 is less than might be possible under the 
best conditions. 

Could we be certain that these pupils who achieve the high intelli- 
gence ratings also possess the character traits, physical fitness, and 
essential emotional attitudes comparable to their general mental 
alertness, it would follow that the schools permit a measureable 
retardation of its most gifted pupils. The apparent educational loss 
sustained by this retardation — one year or more for 15 percent of the 
most intellectual pupils in school — if actually existent, is a very 
serious matter both for the pupils concerned and for society in 
general. The insufficiency of our data does not enable us to make 
so definite a generalization, and to have secured such detailed in- 
formation concerning individual pupils would have exceeded the 
scope of a state-wide survey. Our figures are, however, sufficient to 
define a problem to which every teacher, supervisor and administra- 
tive officer should give study. 

Items in Further Diagnosis 
The method of such study is two-fold : First, any pupil suspected 
of possessing more than average intellectual capacity should have a 

137 



most careful diagnosis. Such a diagnosis cannot be made with a 
single intelligence test, however reliable such a test may be. Re- 
peated tests should be given until there can remain no reasonable 
doubt as to the existence of superior intellectual talent. Such tests 
should be supplemented by the most adequate possible analysis of 
character traits and emotional attitudes and interests, the success 
of the child at practical tasks in school and out, his range of experi- 
ence, previous schooling, etc. Only upon such a comprehensive 
basis can a diagnosis of genuine superiority be based. 

The second item in a study of the situation is the constructive 
school and life program desirable for such a pupil. We have as yet 
had but little satisfactory experience in planning and carrying 
through a school program for the education of gifted children. What 
such a program should be we have for the most part yet to learn. 
Its tremendous importance is a genuine challenge to the best 
thought which any school officer can give to it. 

Lest the trend of this discussion be misunderstood as an argument 
for the indiscriminate acceleration of gifted pupils in school or even 
for their segregation, it may be pointed out that there are cogent 
arguments for keeping such pupils with the less gifted in the regular 
classes, giving supplementary educational opportunities on the 
side. Whether such arguments are conclusive only extended experi- 
mental results, not now available, can prove. A general program of 
acceleration is certainly preferable to the kind of indifference which 
allows gifted pupils to grow up without the intellectual stimulation 
which challenges their best powers, or without the educational pro- 
gram that develops in them the essential habits of study, industry 
and supreme effort at intellectual tasks. 

Unwarranted Acceleration 
A situation somewhat less serious than that concerning gifted 
pupils but still important may be noted by an examination of the 
twelve-year-olds at the low end of the scale. In terms of the test, 
18 percent of these pupils score as low or lower than the median 
child of grade 4. The records show that only 13 percent are so low 
as this in actual grade placement. Eight percent score as low as the 
median pupil of grade 3, but only 3 percent are in this grade. It is 

138 



not desired to lay too much stress upon the injustice of advancing 
these low-scoring pupils. A certain proportion of them make up by 
industry, perseverance and other character traits for a certain 
amount of mental backwardness and are entitled to promotion. 

It may also be that some of these pupils of inferior intelligence 
have profited by superior home conditions and superior previous 
schooling so that their achievement is genuinely in excess of that 
which pupils of their ability generally make. Nothing that we know 
about school progress, however, would justify such a conclusion in 
behalf of the entire group. Even if we take the particular individual 
pupils who make these low scores, we find that in most cases the 
achievement test scores are low even though the pupil is in a higher 
grade. Thus, there are a large number of these cases in grade five. 
Rarely, however, do these pupils achieve the normal score in read- 
ing, spelling or arithmetic. A typical case reads like this : reading 
23, spelling 5, addition 12, multiplication 8, or like this: reading 12, 
spelling 3, addition 10, multiplication 8. Such pupils do not belong 
to grade five. 

While it thus appears that a number of the low scoring pupils are 
accelerated beyond the possibility of any genuine profit from the 
work of the grades in which they are found, it does not follow that 
a longer stay in the routine work of the previous grades would have 
been valuable. What most of them deserve is a differentiated 
curriculum designed to give them the kind of training by which 
they can really profit, and superior teaching in the most funda- 
mental items of silent reading and arithmetic. 

The One-Teacher Schools 
The analysis of the age scores in terms of school progress could be 
extended to one- teacher schools. On the face of the figures the 
disparity in percentages for pupils entitled to grade ranking and for 
those actually in grade is less than appears in the case of the larger 
schools. In the one-room schools 8 percent make the necessary 
score and 5.5 percent are so far advanced. The figures are com- 
plicated by the elimination of pupils in the upper ages so that any 
such direct comparison is invalid. Nothing in the figures justifies 
the belief that the larger schools are any less efficient in this regard. 

139 



While the pupils of other ages are probably a more selected group 
than are the twelve-year-olds, a study of their scores leads to the 
same general conclusion. For ages ten, eleven, and thirteen the 
facts are easily apparent. There are a greater number of the pupils 
whose ability as represented in the scores of the test entitles them to 
advanced standing than are to be found in the upper grades and 
there are more of the low-scoring pupils advanced beyond their 
capacities to do the school work than are justified by their school 
achievements. 

Table 46. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 : Showing Grade Progress 
of Twelve- Year-Olds in Terms of Mental Ability 





One-teacher schools 


Four-teacher schools 




Reaching medians of 


Reaching medians of 




Grade 7 


Grade 8 


Grade 7 


Grade 8 


Number entitled to grade 


47 
10 


34 
8 


212 
32 


167 

25 






Percent actually in grade 


23 


5.7 


32 


10 



From all these figures it appears that the effect of the school pro- 
gram is to keep the pupils of any age within a narrower range of 
grade distribution than is warranted by their intellectual abilities. 
The group methods of instruction, the yearly units of curricular 
organization, and the scheme of annual and semi-annual promotions 
are apparently not sufficiently flexible to allow the freest play of 
mental powers. A somewhat more generous program is needed. 



Miller Age Scores 

The scores in the Miller tests are also given by ages in Tables 47- 

48. Owing to the fact that these scores are for high school pupils 

only, there is a much greater selection of cases than was true of the 

Delta 2 scores. The tables reveal, however, certain very interesting 

140 



facts. The median score for the entire group is 74 and the median 
score for each age group represented in this table is approximately 
the same score. The 47 thirteen-year-olds score 74 and the 28 nine- 
teen-year-olds score 74; the intermediate ages do almost exactly 



Table 47. — Miller Mental Ability Test. Large High Schools. 


Grades 


9-12. Distribution of Scores by Ages. Median Score 


for Each Age 




Ages 


























lotal 




11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 2 


1 



1-5 
























6-10 
























11-15 


















i 




2 


16-20 














2 








3 


21-25 












1 






1 




3 


26-30 








2 


4 


7 


2 








11 


31-35 








1 


2 


4 


2 




1 




11 


36-40 




2 




2 


8 


5 


2 


4 






23 


41-45 






2 


4 


7 


9 


3 






1 . 


33 


46-50 




1 


1 


3 


12 


12 


5 




1 




42 


51-55 




1 




9 


17 


19 


12 


4 


2 




64 


56-60 




1 


5 


15 


19 


18 


21 


4 


3 


1 . 


87 


61-65 






3 


17 


20 


19 


11 


5 


2 


3 


1 81 


66-70 




3 


7 


21 


33 


16 


10 


8 


2 


2 


1 103 


71-75 


1 




8 


15 


23 


27 


22 


9 


2 


3 . 


110 


76-80 




1 


3 


20 


29 


33 


20 


14 




4 . 


124 


81-85 




1 


5 


20 


30 


25 


22 


11 


4 


2 . 


120 


86-90 




2 


6 


11 


28 


19 


15 


5 


4 


1 . 


91 


91-95 


1 




5 


14 


9 


14 


14 


11 


3 




71 


96-100 






2 


4 


13 


12 


21 


3 


2 


1 . 


58 


101-105 








3 


6 


7 


7 


1 




1 . 


25 


106-110 








2 




3 


2 


1 




1 . 


9 


111-115 








1 




1 


1 








3 












Total 


? 


12 4 


[7 


164 


260 


246 


195 


98 


28 


20 


2 1,074 


Median score. . 




68 i 


'4 


74 


73 


74 


77 


74 


74 


76 . 


74.4 



the same. This is just the score for grade 10, as may be seen in 
Table 35, page 116. 

The ninth grade score (see Table 35) is 67 and the twelve-year-olds 
shown in Table 47 who have forged ahead and have had almost a 

141 



year in high school have a median of 68. They are clearly entitled 
to their advancement. Of the two eleven-year-olds in grade 9, one 
scores 73 and the other 92. The 47 thirteen-year-olds score the 
median of grade 10, although they are practically all in grade 9. 



Table 48. — Miller Mental Ability Test. 
9-12. Distribution of Scores by Ages. 



Small High Schools. Grades 
Median Score for Each Age 





Ages 




1 


1 12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


Total 




1-5 
6-10 
11-15 
16-20 
21-25 
26-30 
31-35 
36-40 
41-45 
46-50 
51-55 
56-60 
61-65 
66-70 
71-75 
76-80 
81-85 
86-90 
91-95 
96-100 
101-105 
106-110 
111-115 


1 . 


2 
2 

1 

1 
1 


1 

"l 

4 

"l 
4 
4 
3 

3 
3 
2 


1 

2 

3 
2 
5 
5 
3 
7 
6 
5 
5 
6 
2 


1 
1 
1 
4 
2 
3 
5 
3 
8 
5 

13 

12 

10 

9 

8 

13 

2 

2 


2 
2 
1 
7 
6 
6 
7 

10 
4 

14 
6 

14 
4 
3 




2 
6 
4 
3 
6 
7 
8 
8 
6 
4 
5 
5 
1 
2 


1 
1 

1 
1 
5 
5 
4 
4 
3 
2 
5 

2 
1 




1 

1 
1 

5 

2 

2 
1 

5 
1 




1 

1 


1 

1 

1 


1 

2 

3 

7 

6 

6 

25 

22 

30 

37 

42 

43 

47 

30 

45 

34 

14 

5 

3 


Total 


1 7 


28 


52 


102 


86 


67 


35 


19 


2 


3 


402 


Median score. . . 


. 65 


72 


74 


73 


74 


74 


70 


75 






73.3 



It is clear from these figures that the pupils who have advanced 
faster than the school program provides have done so on the basis 
of genuine capacity to do the work. The discrepancy comes in their 
not advancing as fast as their abilities warrant. 

142 



The over-age pupils who are still in high school are obviously not 
superior students. In general they are of average or less than 
average ability and are making up by additional time for what they 
lack in native capacity. 

Intelligence and Reading Combined 
Attention has been repeatedly called to the margin of unreliability 

Table 49. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examina- 
tion, Sigma 3, Form B: Combined Scores. Four-Teacher Elementary 
Schools. Grades 5-9. Distribution of Scores by Ages. Median 
Score for Each Age Group 



Score J 


) 9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 1 


9 Total 


31-40 

41-50 

51-60 

61-70 

71-80 

81-90 

91-100 ] 
101-110 
111-120 
121-130 
131-140 
141-150 
151-160 
161-170 
171-180 
181-190 
191-200 
201-210 
211-220 
221-230 
231-240 
241-250 
251-260 
261-270 
271-280 
281-290 
291-300 
301-310 


1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
3 
L 3 
1 
2 
2 
4 
2 
4 
4 
1 
1 
1 


1 

1 
2 
2 
4 
2 

*4 
3 

5 
1 
1 

1 

"l 

2 

1 


1 
2 

1 

3 

11 

7 

8 

20 

24 

22 

24 

15 

17 

9 

12 

11 

8 

5 

1 

1 

1 


*4 
5 
4 
8 

14 
13 
18 
25 
31 
27 
28 
23 
35 
35 
30 
36 
29 
25 
14 
13 
5 
5 
3 


3 
2 
4 
5 
10 
15 
18 
29 
21 
36 
26 
34 
34 
35 
42 
25 
35 
23 
26 
19 
22 
10 
1 

"l 


4 

5 

4 

4 

9 

9 

18 

23 

26 

30 

38 

35 

27 

42 

47 

49 

41 

34 

32 

29 

19 

16 

6 

2 

1 


"l 

3 
1 
6 
5 
9 
7 

11 
15 
19 
18 
27 
31 
28 
26 
26 
22 
27 
11 
20 
4 
4 
2 


1 

1 

3 

7 

3 

5 

4 

6 

12 

22 

9 

3 

14 

14 

14 

6 

6 

5 

1 

1 


i 

l 
l 

3 

2 
5 
3 
4 
1 
3 
5 
4 
1 
3 
4 
1 




1 

1 

2 '. 

3 . 

2 
2 

2 '. 


1 

1 

17 

18 

18 

27 

48 

1 65 

82 

104 

123 

1 150 

. 147 

169 

. 171 

175 

162 

. 167 

159 

139 

95 

92 

60 

37 

14 

3 

4 

1 


Total. .. . 


1 35 


32 


203 


430 


477 


551 


324 


139 


42 


13 


2 2,249 


Median. . . 


. 128.5 


151 


162.0 


176 


181.4 


191.2 


185.4 


186.5 


196 


188.5 i; 


51 



143 



in the use of a single examination. Presumably the combination 
tables, such as Tables 49 and 50, which give the distributions in Delta 



Table 50. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examina- 
tion, Sigma 3, Form B: Combined Scores. One-Teacher Elementary 
Schools. Grades 5 to 9. Distribution of Scores by Ages 



Score 








Ag 


'es 








Total 
























8 


9 


1( 


) 11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 




41-50 




1 


( 


> 9 


6 


3 


7 


6 






38 


51-60 






2 




I 10 


6 


5 


6 


4 






35 


61-70 






3 


< 


> 10 


18 


7 


10 


2 


i 




60 


71-80 






4 


i: 


5 19 


22 


12 


8 


8 


1 




87 


81-90 






3 


i: 


5 18 


26 


24 


17 


5 






106 


91-100 


1 


6 


i: 


I 32 


32 


13 


7 


9 




i 


113 


101-110 


1 


6 


12 


* 22 


38 


23 


21 


6 




1 


131 


111-120 




1 


1( 


) 29 


34 


19 


19 


5 


i 


1 


119 


121-130 






2 




1 14 


32 


31 


21 


10 


3 




120 


131-140 






3 


1( 


) 18 


26 


19 


19 


11 


2 




108 


141-150 






2 


* 


f 15 


27 


23 


21 


18 


4 




117 


151-160 






1 




) 17 


26 


22 


20 


10 


6 


i 


106 


161-170 








\ 


5 12 


23 


26 


16 


13 


4 




102 


171-180 






1 


1 


5 


16 


16 


17 


13 


3 


i 


73 


181-190 










8 


9 


17 


15 


9 


3 


l 


62 


191-200 






1 


' \ 


L 5 


4 


16 


24 


7 


9 


l 


68 


201-210 








\ 


7 


10 


15 


17 


10 


5 




65 


211-220 








1 


[ 3 


4 


4 


7 


8 


5 




32 


221-230 










3 


5 


6 


6 


6 


2 


i 


29 


231-240 










2 


3 


5 


11 


7 


2 




30 


241-250 












1 


2 


6 


4 


2 




15 


251-260 










1 




2 




5 






8 


261-270 
















i 




i 




2 


271-280 














1 




i 


2 




4 


281-290 


























291-300 


























301-310 


















i 


i 




*2 


311-320 


























Total 


2 


36 


11 


J 259 


368 


311 


296 


178 


57 


8 


1,632 


Median. . . 


9 


6 


101 


10. 


5.7 114.2 


121.6 


140.2 


147.2 


156 


191.4 


156 





2 and Sigma 3 combined for four- and one-room schools present a 
more dependable basis of generalization. An examination of these 

144 



tables, however, leads to no different conclusions. The amount of 
overlapping of age scores is apparently about the same and the num- 
ber of cases entitled to advancement but not securing it is about 
the same. 

It would be easy to push too far the exact interpretation of these 
tables. Any adjustment made on the basis of tests such as these 
must take into account much information concerning individual 
pupils not here available. About the general situation, however, 
there can be little doubt, namely, there is ample room for improve- 
ment of the school program so that pupils may advance more in 
accord with their capacities, and that, in a careful scrutiny of con- 
ditions, the use of tests such as these is a decided help. 



M5 



CHAPTER VII 
SCHOOL ORGANIZATION 

THE New York rural school system is built upon the tradi- 
tional plan of eight years to the elementary school and four 
years in the high school. There are some variations to this 
in the organization of junior high schools, intermediate schools, 
special classes and separate sections of the regular grades, but the 
8-4 plan is, in general, the basis of rural school organization and 
administration. We have already attempted to throw some light 
upon the efficiency of this scheme of organization in the discussion 
of school progress and the classification of pupils. Let us next 
inquire to what degree the exact meaning of this organization is 
clear and dependable. 

In our ordinary consideration of school progress a grade designa- 
tion is the medium of exchange. Grade 8, for example, means for 
most schools the end of the elementary school course. To finish 
this grade in New York state means to have been enrolled in school 
180 days per year for 8 years or a total of 1440 days; it means to be 
about 14.4 years of age, to have had extended training in reading, 
handwriting, spelling, language, arithmetic, grammar, geography 
and American history, and to be possessed of the requisite informa- 
tion and skill for entrance upon high school work. Upon the 
assumption that such a grade designation carries such a definite 
connotation, the whole school organization, state and local, is 
based. In these terms courses of study are laid out, educational 
privileges are granted, school moneys are raised and distributed, 
and educational discussion is carried on. 

This assumption that a grade designation carries with it such a 
definite meaning is hardly justified by the conditions revealed by 
the tests. The assumption is that an eight-grade school should 

146 



give an eight-grade elementary education, but the test results 
show that grades with the same numerical designation have greatly 
different levels of accomplishment even within the same school 
district. These differences appear more definitely when types of 
schools are considered. Thus, there is a clear gap between the 
level of educational advancement represented by the eighth grade 
of the larger rural schools and the eighth grade of the one-teacher 
schools. To be the median eighth grade pupil in the larger rural 
schools of New York means to score 115 in the intelligence test, 81 
in the reading examination, 76 in the combined history tests, 84 in 
spelling, 16.6 in addition and 16.8 in multiplication, whereas, to be 
the median eighth grade pupil in the one-teacher school means to 
make the following scores: intelligence 101, reading 66, history 60, 
spelling 74, addition 16.2, multiplication 16.9. The latter scores 
are more nearly comparable to seventh grade standing in the larger 
schools; only in age, years in school, course of study outlined, and 
achievements in arithmetic are the two "grades 8" alike. If we 
are to consider the conditions in the larger schools as a basis for 
comparison, there is a measurable illusion, amounting to a year or 
more, in speaking of the final year in the one-teacher schools as 
grade 8. Either this, or the eighth grades of the larger schools 
should be designated as grade nine. 

Grade 8 is here used by way of illustration. Similar facts are 
revealed by the scores for any other grade. Thus, in grade 5 we 
have the following comparative scores: 





Delta 2 


Sigma 3 


Addition 


Multiplication 


Small school 

Larger school 


65 

75 


32 
42 


13.4 
13.6 


12.5 
14.1 



That such discrepancies from the one-teacher school to the larger 
school units are not peculiar to New York state is easy of demon- 
stration, as may be observed in Chapter XIV, which summarizes 
data on this topic. The differences, however, are not confined to 
variations within state limits. 

147 



Dr. Miller found that the average score in intelligence examin- 
ations for beginning students in Minnesota high schools is 53 and for 
second year students 62. In the New York survey we found the 
median score in April for first year students to be 67 and for second 
year students 78, a difference between the Minnesota and New 
York groups of about a year. The median scores are given together 
with the median ages for the several high school grades for both the 
Minnesota results and the larger New York high schools in Table 51. 

Table 51. — Miller Mental Ability Test; Minnesota and New York 
Median Scores With Median Ages for High School Grades. Min- 
nesota September Medians Extended by Computation to April Ratings 





Grades 




9 


10 


11 


12 




Median 
score 


Median 
age 


Median 
score 


Median 
age 


Median 
score 


Median 
age 


Median 
score 


Median 
age 


Minnesota ( 
April rat- \ 
ings 1 

New York [ 
April rat- 1 
ings: large | 

high schools { 


57.5 




65 




71.5 




76 




67 


15.4 


74 


16.3 


80 


17.2 


85 


18.2 




15.2 




16.3 




17.1 




17.9 



The ninth grade norm published by Miller was based largely on 
Minnesota schools. It shows, as may be easily observed in Figure 
29, a lower mentality requirement than exists in New York schools. 
Although the ninth grades in the larger New York high schools 
exceed in scores the same grades in the smaller high schools, even 
these latter greatly exceed the norm thus fixed on the bases of 
results in another state. It cannot be here said whether the New 
York or the Minnesota standard is the better one. Too many 
issues are involved to say offhand whether a high or a low level of 
ability for ninth grade entrance is better. 

For one thing the answer to such a problem involves our theories 

148 



as to the relation of our schools to a democratic society. What we 
can say clearly, however, is that the standards of the two states are 
different in terms of this test, although in both states we call the 
entering high school classes ninth grades. Upon the assumption 
that the ninth grade designations are of like meaning proceeds all 
our educational discussion and all school organization and adminis- 
tration. 

It may be pointed out in this connection that school administra- 
tors can change the level of ninth grade ability by a process of 
general retardation. By holding pupils longer in the grades they 
may assure a higher intelligence level for ninth grade classes, 
because children so improve in ability by the mere act of living on 
from their fourteenth to their fifteenth birthdays, quite apart from 
any effect of formal schooling during the lapse of this year. The 
median age of the pupils must always, therefore, be included in a 
consideration of grade intelligence. 

This difference in age hardly accounts for the difference in median 
test scores as between the New York and the Minnesota groups. 
The eleven hundred pupils for whom Miller reports a median score 
of 53 in September were 14.7 years old. The New York children 
in April were 15.1 and 15.4 years old in the two types of schools. 
The lapse of seven months from September to April would just 
about bring the Minnesota group up to the age level of the New 
York group. 

Extending the Minnesota September ninth grade median up to 
what would be an April score places it at 57.5, which still falls short 
by a full year's growth the New York median of 67. In fact the 
Minnesota tenth grade median extended to April rating is only 65 
points. 

In a state-wide study of the intelligence of Indiana high school 
seniors, Book found that "in some schools the entire senior class 
made scores which placed them above the median for the entire 
state, while in other schools the entire senior class ranked below the 
state median." He notes further that "similar differences appear 
in schools of the same size and rank located in the same county or 
city." 

For some time past in the Minneapolis public schools the Hag- 

149 



gerty intelligence examination, Delta 2, has been given to eighth 
grade pupils as a partial basis for classifying such students in high 
school. At one testing period there were 42 schools included. In 
one of these schools the median score for a group of 39 pupils was 
105. This is the equivalent to the norm for 14-year-old children. 
In another school the median score was 126, which is the norm for 
sixteen-year-olds. Thus within the limits of the same school 
system there is a difference between two eighth grade classes of two 
years in mental development. The median score for all the ele- 
mentary schools tributary to one high school was 112. It was 121 
for those tributary to another high school. There is a difference of 
one mental year between the two, which is a definitely measurable 
error in applying the same grade designation to each group. 





I l 1 l 1 I 




Norm 


M^^^^^l 










.Small 
High Schools 


^^^^^^ 










Large 
High 3cboob 






i i i i i i 



10 CO 50 40 50 60 



70 



Figure 29. — Miller Mental Ability. Median scores for ninth grade, large and 
small high schools. Norm for ninth grade 



Statistics to the same end can be quoted in extenso. The ines- 
capable inference is that so long as schools are standardized on the 
basis of the years which children have been in school, there will be a 
measurable discrepancy in the meaning of standards as these are 
used to describe schools in different parts of a city, county and state, 
to say naught of the country as a whole. 

It would add materially to clear thinking about the New York 
elementary school system if some educational agency could and 
would fix the meaning of a grade in terms of standard tests. This 
meaning should be stated in objective terms, such as the scores of 
well-standardized tests and scales. A standard fifth grade would 
be one in which the pupils scored such and such marks in definitely 

150 



designated tests. A standard eighth grade would show another 
definite set of scores in the same or other tests, and a standard 
elementary school would be one in which grade for grade definite 
objective standards in intelligence and achievement tests are met. 
Upon the condition of meeting these standards the rating of a 
school would be based, educational privileges granted, school 
moneys allotted, and the administration of the school carried on. 

Basic Elements in Objective Standardization 
The proposal to define the meaning of a grade or larger school 
unit in terms of objective measures must, of course, have detailed 
specification to be of any use. The task of such specification is the 
business of whatever standardizing agencies exist within the state, 
such as the State Department of Education, which is already 
engaged so extensively in the work of standardization. It may 
clarify the proposal, however, if a definition may be offered for a 
particular place in the system where standardization is much needed, 
namely, at high school entrance. What can be offered in the name 
of tests and measurements that will lend a more exact definition to 
the eighth or ninth school grades? 

If such standardization is undertaken, what type of measures may 
be of service? First in the list of such examinations should be 
placed a measure of the general ability of pupils to do school work, 
measures of the type commonly designated as group intelligence 
tests, represented in this survey by the Delta 2 and the Miller 
examinations. As already indicated, abundant evidence is at 
hand to show that the ability to do school work is at least roughly 
correlated with ability to make scores in tests of this kind. A 
further fact of significance in this connection is that probably 
nowhere in our whole measurement program are we better provided 
with satisfactory measuring instruments than at this point of eight 
or ninth grade intelligence. There are more than a score of intelli- 
gence examinations usable at this point, which, while varying in 
details of results, will give substantially the same records for groups 
of thirty or more pupils. To be sure, much experimental work 
remains to be done in equating these tests with each other so that 
we may know what a score of 120 in the Haggerty Intelligence 

151 



Examination Delta 2 means in terms of the Miller, the Terman, 
the Otis, the Whipple or the National Examinations. The problem 
of so evaluating these tests involves nothing that we do not fairly 
well know in the realm of statistical methods and sets for us no 
unsolvable scientific problem. However extended and laborious 
may be the work of refining the measuring instruments there should 
be kept clearly in mind the fact that the fundamental item in 
defining standard levels of advancement is an objective statement 
of the requisite capacity for pursuing the educational program of 
a particular grade, and intelligence tests offer probably the most 
satisfactory means for giving such an objective statement. 

The second item in a program of objective standards is a satis- 
factory measure of silent reading ability. By and large, the most 
fundamental prerequisite for pursuit of the high school course, 
aside from general mental development, is the capacity on the part 
of a pupil to read intelligently the language of the books used in 
that course. Students insufficiently prepared to extract informa- 
tion from books are handicapped for every advanced stage of formal 
schooling, and a certain definite achievement in this field should be 
demanded as a criterion for grade definition. 

The third item to be placed in a program of standardization is a 
test of a pupil's ability to express his own thoughts in the English 
language. There will probably be less agreement upon the satis- 
factoriness of the present technic of language measurement than 
is true of either intelligence or reading measurement, but even so, 
there is good reason to believe that a sincere and thoroughgoing 
attempt to produce such a standard objective statement of condi- 
tions would meet with success. 

It may appear that we are overlooking the more specific school 
subjects by thus making intelligence, reading skill and ability in 
written composition the basic elements in a criterion of standardi- 
zation. The degree to which such specific subjects may be thus 
ignored is more or less relative to the stage of progress with which 
we are concerned, specific subject prerequisites becoming much 
more significant in certain places in grade advancement than in 
others. But for the end of the elementary school and the beginning 
of the high school, it would seem that the three things named above 

152 



should be made the fundamental bases of standardization, and 
tests in specific subject matter should be supplemental if used at all. 

Objective Standards Not Necessarily Uniformity 
If the state department of education or any other central school 
administrative unit should adopt a program of standardization of 
the type suggested above, it would not follow that all schools would 
become alike or that all children would be subjected to exactly the 
same treatment. The purpose of such standardization is to make 
the problems of administration intelligible, to bring about a situa- 
tion where it can be known in terms of pupil achievement exactly 
what any grade designation means. Under circumstances of this 
type, everybody — teachers, administrators, supervisors, public citi- 
zens — would know whenever a particular eighth grade or any other 
grade was at variance from the state standards and would know it 
in terms most significant for the evaluation of school work. 

If there exist in any school or in any school district reasons, good 
and sufficient, why that particular school or school district should 
not meet an objective standard so fixed, or why another school 
should exceed such standards, the necessary recognition should be 
given to these facts. The purpose of such standards is to clarify 
thinking on educational problems rather than to produce uniformity 
in school programs. For instance, it may be reasonable to expect, 
owing to certain conditions fundamentally determinative in char- 
acter, that a particular school should attain a higher achievement 
rating than another school. Thus, a school in a district largely 
foreign in its population might face a more difficult educational 
problem in meeting an objective standard in the reading of English 
prose. The objective standard, rather than ignoring such condi- 
tions, renders its function by enabling teachers and others to isolate 
these conditions for more effective attack. 

The prevailing practice of using grade designations based on 
years in school slurs over such differential factors and leaves them 
vague and confusing. What society needs is not that pupils 
should remain in school six, eight, ten or twelve years, but that its 
citizens should attain a certain educational proficiency. The state 
standardizes its schools by years on the assumption that the 

153 



designated years in school will produce the needed level of efficiency, 
and the currency value of the yearly unit is so great that it should 
not be lightly displaced. Its meaning, however, should be rendered 
definite in terms of school accomplishment, and the desirable limits 
of schooling should be fixed in terms of objectively statable social 
demands. 

To be sure, if eighth grade achievement were defined in such 
objective terms, it would mean that, in order to meet them, certain 
school districts would need to bestir themselves, to employ better 
teachers, to erect better buildings, to increase library facilities, to 
put more money into schools, and to increase taxes. Without 
question, it would mean that the state should accept a larger 
financial responsibility for the maintenance of certain local schools. 
Perchance, it might mean, even with improved school conditions, 
that certain schools or school districts would require nine or ten 
years to meet eighth grade standards just as now some pupils in all 
schools so require. If so, the necessary provision should be so made 
or the inability of such schools should be frankly admitted. Nothing 
is to be gained either for the pupils who attend schools or for 
society for whom the schools exist, by obscuring the facts, and 
nothing will more quickly excite the vital interest of intelligent 
patrons than a clear statement of what the facts are. 

Special Classes 
The abilities of the pupils as recorded in these tests set certain 
other problems in school organization. From what has already 
been said regarding their bearing on grade classification and school 
progress there is apparently a need for special help to particular 
pupils. Although it will be recalled that the pupils whose scores 
are here given are not in special classes, there can be little doubt 
that many of the pupils in these schools would profit by segregation 
into opportunity classes. Special classes already exist for back- 
ward pupils in many New York schools. Many of the pupils 
tested in the survey would profit by being taught in such classes. 
The educational values of such classes, both to the pupils in them 
and to the entire school of which they are a part, are so generally 
recognized that they need not be elaborated upon here. Their 

154 



extension under proper restrictions as to kinds of pupils assigned 
to them, the quality of the teacher, etc., is to be recommended. 

It is not so commonly admitted, however, that classes for gifted 
pupils are desirable. Few of the rural school districts maintain 
such classes. It is a problem, however, which every school district 
should face, whether or not the necessities of gifted children would 
not be better met by the organization of separate classes. As 
already noted, the abilities and attainments of such children greatly 
exceed those of other children with whom they are classed and the 
organization of a special class is one possible solution of the problems 
which they present. It is possible that both they and pupils of 
more ordinary capacities would be better served if opportunity in 
segregated classes could be afforded the more gifted. 

It is not argued here that the most satisfactory solution of the 
problem of gifted children is segregation, but every administrative 
officer should face the problem either of the use of segregation as a 
specific device or of providing some better arrangements within 
his school district. 



155 



CHAPTER VIII 
INTELLIGENCE AND ACHIEVEMENT 

THE data from the intelligence tests have thus far been used 
to throw light on problems of the grouping of pupils, school 
progress, school organization, and educational administra- 
tion. It remains to inquire to what degree these test results throw 
light on the achievements of pupils and the efficiency of teaching. 
As indicated at the beginning of this chapter, it is fair to expect 
pupils of superior ability to achieve superior results, while pupils of 
inferior ability may be considered as living up to their possibilities 
with lower achievements. The good school is one in which every 
pupil is doing capacity work, that is, living up to the maximum of 
his possibilities. 

From this viewpoint we may now inquire how efficient are the 
New York schools? There are a number of ways in which the 
available data may be used to set forth an answer to the general 
problem thus stated. Let us first assume that the score which a 
pupil makes in the Delta 2 examination is a satisfactory measure 
of his mental ability. The question to be answered then is this: 
Do the achievement test scores show that the pupils of the best 
ability as measured by this intelligence test achieve the best results? 
The mass of available results does not permit a complete analysis 
and discussion. We may, therefore, choose certain samples and 
examine them in detail. A fairly unselected sample of results may 
be obtained by choosing grade 8 from the larger schools of Erie 
county. There are 188 of these eighth grade pupils for whom the 
scores on all the tests are available. Enough additional cases may, 
therefore, be selected at random from the eighth grades of Tomp- 
kins county to make an even 200 cases. 

Dividing this group of 200 eighth graders into decile groups on 

156 



the basis of Delta 2 scores we have 20 pupils in each group with 
median Delta 2 scores as shown in the first column of Table 52. 
The question now to be answered is, Do the achievements of these 
several percentile groups differ in the order of their percentile 
ranking? The answer may be seen in Table 52, where the median 
achievement of each percentile group is shown for reading (Sigma 
3), spelling, addition, multiplication, arithmetical problems and the 
two tests in American history. The total achievement score given 
in the last column of the table is obtained by adding all the scores 
for the several tests. 

Table 52. — Median Scores in Several Educational Tests for Each 
Decile Group in Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. 200 Cases, 
Being All Eighth Grade Pupils Tested With All Tests in Erie County 



Per- 
cen- 
tile 
group 


Delta 

2 


Sigma 
3 


Spell- 
ing 


Addi- 
tion 


Mul- 
tipli- 
cation 


Prob- 
lems 


History 
infor- 
mation 


History 
thought 


Total 
achieve- 
ment 


1 


87.5 


48 


7 


15.5 


15 


10 


26 


25.5 


147 


2 


96.5 


60.5 


8 


17 


16 


12 


30.5 


32.5 


176.5 


3 


103.5 


71 


8.5 


16 


16 


12 


36 


34.5 


194 


4 


109.5 


76 


8.5 


16 


15.5 


11 


34.5 


31.5 


193 


5 


113.5 


75.5 


8 


17.5 


16 


12 


39.5 


36 


204.5 


6 


118 


79.5 


8.5 


16 


16.5 


11 


39.5 


39.5 


210.5 


7 


122.5 


84 


9 


16 


16.5 


13 


43 


40.5 


222 


8 


127.5 


91 


9 


16 


15.5 


13 


43.5 


41.5 


229.5 


9 


134 


97.5 


9 


17 


15.5 


13 


46 


48 


246 


10 


144.5 


106.5 


9 


17 


17 


14 


54 


51 


268.5 



This total achievement score shows a definite step upward from 
each decile to the one next above, except in the case of group 4 ? 
where there is a reversal of 1 point. As between the first and the 
tenth decile groups there is a difference of 121.5 points. This 
difference is 82.6 percent of the median achievement of the lowest 
group. 

Not all the tests behave alike. Reading, spelling and the two 
history tests, each shows one reversal as regard contiguous decile 
groups. The arithmetic problems test shows two, and multiplica- 
tion and addition are most erratic of all the tests. If the two tests 

157 



in the fundamentals of arithmetic were eliminated, the median 
scores in the last column would show more marked increases than 
they do. Apparently, skill in these processes has less relation to the 







ID 40 60 60 100 ED 140 160 



fertile 
6i 



mmmmmfflmaiMmmmm. 




140 150 



Intelligence, At Achievement 



Figure 30. — Comparison for each percentile group in Intelligence Examina- 
tion, Delta 2, between median total achievement scores and median Delta 2 
scores. 200 cases, being all eighth grade pupils tested with all tests in Erie 
county 

158 



abilities measured by the general intelligence tests than do any other 
achievements. Possibly much more depends upon extended drill. 
If one considers only the lowest and highest groups, however, even 
these tests show distinctly superior achievements for the highest 
group. The relation of intelligence as measured by the Delta 2 
test to achievement appears more clearly in Figure 30, where the 
scores are represented by parallel bar diagrams. For the purposes 
of this figure the total achievement score is divided by 2 to make it 
approximate in size the intelligence score. The outstanding fact 
is the close approximation of the intelligence and achievement 
scores for the several decile groups and the uniformity in the 
increasing amount of both from the lowest to the highest ten 
percent groups. It obviously means something in achievement 
to have a high intelligence rating. 

Reading and Achievement in Other Subjects 

In how far the reading examination gives results similar to those 
for the groups based on the Delta 2 scores may be seen in Table 52a. 
Here the decile groups are determined by the scores in reading 
examination, Sigma 3. The sum of the achievement test scores for 



Table 52a. — Median Scores in Several Educational Tests for Each 
Decile Group in Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B. 200 Cases, 
Being All Eighth Grade Pupils Tested With All Tests in Erie 
County 



De- 
cile 
group 


Sigma 
3 


Delta 
2 


Spell- 
ing 


Addi- 
tion 


Mul- 
tipli- 
cation 


Prob- 
lems 


History 
infor- 
mation 


History 
thought 


Total 
achieve- 
ment 


1 


45.5 


90.5 


8 


16 


16 


10 


26 


28.5 


104.5 


2 


58.5 


97.5 


7.5 


15.5 


14.5 


10 


33.5 


32.5 


113.5 


3 


65 


107 


8 


16.5 


16 


12 


33.5 


33 


119 


4 


71.5 


110 


7 


16 


17 


13 


32.5 


35 


120.5 


5 


76 


111 


8.5 


16 


15 


11.5 


34.5 


36.5 


122 


6 


80.5 


117.5 


8 


16 


16 


11.5 


36.5 


37 


125 


7 


86 


120 


8 


16.5 


15.5 


12 


44 


44.5 


140.5 


8 


92.5 


125.5 


9 


16.5 


18 


13 


42.5 


39 


138 


9 


100.5 


133 


9 


16.5 


15 


14 


50 


47.5 


152 


10 


111 


139.5 


10 


18 


17 


13 


53 


49 


160 



159 



the lowest group is 104.5. The highest group scores a total of 160, 
or 55.5 points more than the lowest group. This is a difference of 
about 50 percent. The behavior of the several tests is slightly 
more erratic than for the percentile groups based on the Delta 2 
scores. In this case the history thought test and the spelling test 
most nearly approach regular increase of score. The tests in 
arithmetical fundamentals are most erratic. 

Intelligence and Reading Combined 
Decile groups may also be obtained by combining the Delta 2 
and the Sigma 3 scores. The ratings based on this combination 
may be seen in Table 53. The achievements are given separately, 
and combined in the last column. The total achievement scores 
of Tables 52a and 53 are lower than in Table 52, because the reading 

Table 53. — Median Scores in Several Educational Tests for Each 
Decile Group in Combination of Intelligence Examination, Delta 
2, and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B. 200 Cases, Being All 
Eighth Grade Pupils Tested With All Tests in Erie County 



Percen- 
tile 
group 


Delta 2 

and 
Sigma 3 


Spell- 
ing 


Addi- 
tion 


Mul- 
tipli- 
cation 


Prob- 
lems 


History 
infor- 
mation 


History 
thought 


Total 
achieve- 
ment 


1 


131.5 


8 


16 


15.5 


10 


25 


24 


100 


2 


156 


8 


16 


15 


12 


32 


32 


116 


3 


171.5 


9 


16 


15 


11 


35.5 


33 


116 


4 


182 


7 


16 


16 


12 


35 


36.5 


123 


5 


190 


9 


16 


16.5 


12 


34 


37.5 


130.5 


6 


197 


9 


16 


16.5 


11.5 


35 


36.5 


122 


7 


206 


8 


16 


15.5 


13 


42 


39 


131 


8 


220 


9 


16 


16.5 


13 


43.5 


42 


139 


9 


232.5 


9 


17 


16 


14 


47.5 


46.5 


148.5 


10 


250.5 


10 


17 


16 


13.5 


54.5 


50 


159.5 



scores are not included. The achievement scores show an increase 
of about 60 percent from the lowest to the highest decile groups, 
which is somewhat less than that for the Delta 2 grouping shown in 
Table 52. This difference in percentage increase is probably due to 
the absence of the reading scores from the achievement total and 
their inclusion with the intelligence scores. A bar diagram (Figure 

160 



30a) shows like Figure 30 the very definite diagnostic value which 
the two tests and their combination have as measures of educa- 
tional achievement. 



£0 40 60 60 100 jgj 140 160 160 £00 ££Q £40 £6 
1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T" 




£0 40 60 60 100 IS O 140 160 100 £00 



£40 £60 



A£+0 



Tola! Achievement 



Figure 30a. — Comparison for each percentile group in combination of In- 
telligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B, 
between median total achievement scores and median scores in combination of 
Delta 2 and Sigma 3. 200 cases, being all eighth grade pupils tested with all 
tests in Erie County 

ii 161 



A fact of great significance is the greater relation existing between 
the intelligence and reading scores, on the one hand, and the scores 
in history, arithmetical problems and spelling, on the other, than 
that which exists between intelligence and reading and the scores in 
the fundamentals of arithmetic. It demonstrates the harm which 
may be done pupils of high intelligence when their school progress 
is made to depend largely on their achievement in addition and 
multiplication. The latter skills, because they are easier of deter- 
mination, are all too often made the basis of school promotions to 
the exclusion of the more important, although more recondite, 
abilities which are the basis of success in thinking subjects, such as 
history, geography, problems and prose reading. 

A Finer Measure of Achievement 
The fact that pupils scoring low in intelligence score low in 
achievement, and that pupils who score high in intelligence score 
high in achievement does not, however, give a satisfactory measure 
of school efficiency. What we wish to know is whether these 
pupils of high intelligence are achieving results up to their capacity. 
It is not enough that they do better than the pupils of low ability. 
They should achieve up to the maximum which their abilities will 
allow. Further consideration may now be given to this problem. 

For this further analysis a second group of eighth grade pupils 
will be used comparatively with the 200-group already described. 
This second group includes just 100 pupils. 

Intelligence Quotients 

For this study the scores in the Delta 2 examination are taken 
as a measure of intelligence. From these scores an intelligence 
quotient for each pupil was computed by means of Table 25, page 90. 
The distribution of these quotients with the medians for each 
group is given in the first division of Table 54. In both groups the 
range is very considerable, from about 65 to 140 in Group I and 
from about 70 to 160 in Group II. 

It is clear that there is a fairly wide difference between the two 
groups. In group I the median intelligence quotient is 105. This 

162 



is just about normal or slightly above. The median of 115 shows 
group II to be distinctly above normal. This group as a whole 
belongs in the class which Terman calls of "superior" intelligence. 
As a matter of fact, about 40 percent of the group are "of very 
superior" intelligence, a level reached by only about 4 percent of 
the population. In contrast, only about 20 percent of group I 
belong in this "very superior" class. Conversely, the percentage 
of the two groups belonging to the "dull" and "borderline" levels 
of intelligence are 8 and 13 percent respectively. 

The median scores for the two groups in all the tests are given in 
Table 55. The Delta 2 for one group is 117 and for the other it is 
121.5. This difference is equal to about one-half year of intelli- 
gence growth. By comparing the median scores across the table 
it will be seen that the better intelligence group makes the better 
record in every achievement test but two, and that in the medians 
of the combined scores there is a very distinct difference — a difference 
of 25 points in favor of group II. 

Without the intelligence test check on these figures it would be 
easy to assess this superior achievement to superior school condi- 
tions. It is apparent, however, from the intelligence test scores 
that such an interpretation is altogether too simple for the facts. 
In order to make an evaluation of school efficiency somewhat more 
accurately, the data on these two groups may be here submitted 
to further analysis. 

Reading Quotients 
In order to make possible a finer measure of reading efficiency age 
norms were developed for the Sigma 3 examination. The basis 
for these norms, which are given in Table 53a in terms of years and 
months, are the scores made by the pupils examined in the New 
York schools. While the data are not so extensive as those avail- 
able for similar norms for the Delta 2 test, they still represent a 
variety of school conditions and large numbers of cases. In finally 
settling upon the scores for each age the data were submitted to 
numerous tests similar to those employed for the intelligence tests. 
The table shows a fairly uniform step up from age to age, although 
the decreasing differences toward the higher ages indicate that 

163 



reading ability as measured by this test does not tend to increase 
at the same rate as pupils grow older. 

A reading growth curve constructed from the data shown in 
Table 53a is given as Figure 31. The ages covered are not quite the 
same as those for the mental growth curve (Figure 19), but within 



"U7 | | ■ : = - 


c" - "" 


j. ** 


x:: : : ± : : :: : ~^< : 




k 30 :::::: : " i : :~~: : : ^ : _i_ :: 




s ~* 








. * 


£ 


2 


7 




' 


j* 


/ 


/ ~7 




/ 


/ 


7 


~ ± :__: 7 : _ : _ _ ::: : : ± : 


60 : _ _ .I _ 


_ i 


_ _ _z _ - 


/_-___ 




50 y' — - ~ ~ ■ 


----- / 


~ ::__::: _: ± 


J 






i_ 




f ■ ' 


v, ^_ :__ __ _:_: : : : : : _ : : : : 






r ' "' " - - - 














j 










Q„.JJ— _ __ 



20yeai3 

Figure 31. — Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B. Reading growth curve. 
Figures on ordinate indicate score. Figures on base line indicate chronological 



the ages given the similarity of the reading curve to the mental 
curve is very striking. There is the same steep rise in the earlier 
years, the same flattening of the curve toward the upper end and 
the same tendency to rise somewhat even at the 19 to 20 year 
interval. 

164 



Table 53a. — Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B. Age Norms for 
Individuals of Ages 10 to 20 Years. Figures in First Column Op- 
posite Years Indicate Normal Scores for Individuals of Even Ages. 
Figures in Succeeding Columns to Right Indicate Normal Scores for 
Months Beyond Even Ages 



Year 


Months 































1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


10 


25 


26.2 


27.5 


28.7 


30 


31.2 


32.5 


33.7 


35 


36.2 


37.5 


38.7 


11 


40 


41 


42.5 


43.5 


45 


46 


47 


48 


49 


50 


51 


52 


12 


53 


54 


55.5 


56.5 


58 


59 


60 


61 


62 


63 


64 


65 


13 


66 


66.9 


67.8 


68.7 


69.6 


70.5 


71.4 


72.3 


73.2 


74.1 


75.1 


76 


14 


77 


77.8 


78.6 


79.5 


80.3 


81.2 


82 


82.8 


83.6 


84.5 


85.3 


86.1 


15 


87 


87.5 


88.1 


88.6 


89.1 


89.7 


90.3 


90.9 


91.5 


92.1 


92.7 


93.4 


16 


94 


94.5 


95 


95.5 


96 


96.5 


97 


97.5 


98 


98.5 


99 


99.5 


17 


100 


100.4 


100.9 


101.3 


101.7 


102.2 


102.6 


103 


103.4 


103.8 


104.2 


104.6 


18 


105 


105.2 


105.5 


105.7 


106 


106.2 


106.5 


106.7 


107 


107.2 


107.5 


107.7 


19 


108 


108.1 


108.3 


108.5 


108.6 


108.7 


108.9 


109.1 


109.3 


109.5 


109.7 


109.9 


20 


110 

























It is possible, by means of Table 53a, to state the reading achieve- 
ment in terms of age standards and to calculate reading quotients 
after a method generally familiar in the calculation of intelligence 
quotients. The distribution of reading quotients so calculated is 
shown in the second division of Table 54. The range of reading 
quotients here shown is wide, and there is the same type of differ- 
ence between the two groups as are shown in the intelligence quo- 
tients given in the same table. The medians are 98 and 112 
respectively and the percentage of high reading quotients in the 
one group is very much greater than in the other. Above the 
level of 110 the percents are 25 and 53 respectively. The direct 
interpretation of these figures would mean a greater school effici- 
ency for group II than for group I. If, however, we interpret 
these reading quotients in terms of the intelligence quotients given 
in the same table, this conclusion is not so obvious. 



Educational Quotients 
An effort at this latter interpretation is represented by the data 
in the third division of Table 54. The figures in this case are 

165 



"educational" quotients derived by dividing the intelligence 
quotient for an individual into the reading quotient for that same 
individual. To illustrate, a thirteen-year-old pupil should score 



Table 54. — Distribution of Intelligence Quotients Based on Intelli- 
gence Examination, Delta 2. Reading Quotients Based on Reading 
Examination, Sigma 3, Form B, and Educational Quotients Obtained 
by Divtding Reading Quotients by Intelligence Quotients. Group I 
Contains 200 Cases. Group II Contains 100 Cases. All Cases Are 
Taken From the Eighth Grade 





Intelligence 


Reading 


Educational 




quotients 


quotients 


quotients 




Group I 


Group II 


Group I 


Group II 


Group I 


Group II 


60-64 






1 








65-69 


1 




3 


1 






70-74 


3 


1 


4 


1 


2 




75-79 


1 


1 


10 


2 


8 


5 


80-84 


7 


1 


14 


6 


10 


6 


85-89 


14 


5 


23 


4 


38 


17 


90-94 


28 


6 


26 


9 


40 


15 


95-99 


24 


4 


31 


6 


47 


13 


100-104 


22 


7 


20 


11 


30 


22 


105-109 


24 


13 


18 


7 


9 


13 


110-114 


20 


11 


6 


8 


7 


4 


115-119 


15 


11 


7 


6 


6 


3 


120-124 


10 


8 


13 


7 


3 


1 


125-129 


11 


8 


7 


3 






130-134 


10 


3 


2 


6 






1 


135-139 


7 


3 


3 


5 








140-144 


3 


7 


6 


5 








145-149 




7 


2 


6 








150-154 




1 


3 


4 








155-159 
















160-164 




3 


1 


3 








Totals 


200 


100 


200 


100 


200 


100 


Medians . . . 


105 


115.5 


98 


112 


95 


98 



94 in intelligence and 66 in reading. A particular child of this age 
did score 120 and 109 in the two tests. In terms of the standard 
for the two tests given in Tables 25 and 53a, the intelligence and 

166 



reading quotients for this child are, therefore, 118 and 150. In the 
calculation of the educational quotient these two quotients are 
taken as the denominator and numerator of a new fraction, which, 
reduced, gives 124. The significance of this last quotient is that it 
combines chronological age, intelligence and educational achieve- 
ment all in a single figure. As a measure of school efficiency it is 
presumably superior to the achievement score alone or even to the 
achievement quotient. Where this educational quotient is high 
it will mean that the educational product is superior as measured 
by the chronological age and the intelligence of a pupil. A low 
educational quotient will mean that the school product is inferior 
to what the chronological age and the intelligence of a pupil make 
possible. Such quotients will reveal the school which achieves 
good results with mediocre native endowment of pupils; they also 
show the schools which are content with mediocre work from pupils 
of superior ability. 

Table 55. — Median Scores for Group I, Consisting of 200 Eighth Grade 
Pupils, and Group II, Consisting of 100 Eighth Grade Pupils in the 
Following Tests: Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, Reading Ex- 
amination, Sigma 3, Form B, Spelling, Addition, Multiplication, His- 
tory Thought and History Information, and Arithmetical Problems 



Group 


Delta 

2 


Sigma 
3 


Spell- 
ing 


Addi- 
tion 


Mul- 
tipli- 
cation 


History 
thought 


His- 
tory 
infor- 
mation 


Prob- 
lems 


Total 
achieve- 
ment 


I 
II 


117 
121.5 


74 
84.5 


18.6 
18.3 


15.9 
16.5 


16.3 
19 


34.9 
41 


37.1 
44.6 


12.7 
12.3 


*209.5 
*236.2 



* Sum of all median scores in achievement for each group. 



Thus, we have for one pupil the following facts: age, 13 years 5 
months; intelligence score 111; reading score 109. These facts 
give the following quotients: intelligence 109, reading 146, educa- 
tional 134. For another pupil we have these facts: age 14 years 3 
months; intelligence score 130; reading score 70, which give the 
following quotients: intelligence 117, reading 94, and educational 
80. The one of these pupils is of normal intelligence and is achiev- 

167 



ing better than normal results in reading; the other is of very 
superior intelligence and is achieving only ordinary results. The 
difference in educational dividends which the two schools are secur- 
ing on the intellectual capital invested is represented by the differ- 
ence in the two educational quotients of 134 and 80 respectively. 

The facts for the lowest and highest educational quotients from 
each of the two distributions in Table 54 are given in detail in Table 
56. Here it will be seen that some of the most intelligent pupils, as 
measured by the Delta 2 examination, are actually making the 
poorest school records as shown by the educational quotients. 
Conversely, some pupils of mediocre ability are achieving excellent 
results as measured by this quotient. 

Table 56. — Educational Quotients. Detailed Scores and Quotients 
for Highest and Lowest Educational Quotients for Each Group 











Read- 


Intelli- 




Educa- 


Pupil 


Group 


Age 


Delta 2 


ing 


gence 


Reading 


tional 








score 


score 


quotient 


quotient 


quotient 


1 


II 


15yrs. 6mos. 


105 


37 


90 


70 


77. 


2 


II 


14 yrs. 2 mos. 


142 


85 


136 


104 


76 


3 


II 


12 yrs. 5 mos. 


152 


87 


161 


121 


75 


4 


II 


13 yrs. 2 mos. 


147 


88 


151 


115 


76 


5 


II 


14 yrs. 3 mos. 


130 


70 


117 


94 


80 


6 


II 


13 yrs. 5 mos. 


111 


109 


109 


146 


134 


7 


I 


16 yrs. 2 mos. 


110 


51 


90 


73 


81 


8 


I 


12 yrs. 6 mos. 


126 


111 


129 


160 


124 


9 


I 


13 yrs. 1 mo. 


120 


109 


118 


149 


126 


10 


I 


14 yrs. 10 mos. 


68 


58 


73 


S3 


113 


11 


I 


15 yrs. 1 mo. 


134 


65 


115 


85 


74 



The distribution of these educational quotients and the medians 
for the two groups are shown in Table 54. Here we have the same 
wide range of quotients, but when the median educational quotients 
are considered it is clear that the schools of Group II are not so 
superior as the gross scores made them appear to be. The differ- 
ence in median educational quotients is 3 points and in case of 
both groups the median is below one hundred, which should be 
normal educational achievement. 

The absolute size of this median quotient is subject to a number 

168 



of influences that are more or less dependent on the technique of 
measurement. Thus, obviously, the reading quotients are depen- 
dent, among other things, upon the correctness of the age norms for 
the reading test. If these norms are slightly higher than they 
should be, the reading quotients would be thereby reduced, and 
these lowered reading quotients would serve to reduce the educa- 
tional quotients. Errors of this type should, however, be the same 
for both groups of pupils, and would not explain away the fact that 
these two median quotients come much more closely together than 
do the medians for the intelligence and reading quotients. The 
apparent explanation of the latter fact is that the schools included 
in group I are securing practically as good educational dividends 
on the intellectual capital invested as are the apparently better 
schools, although the gross achievement scores indicate that the 
schools of group II are superior. Such superiority as does exist 
in these schools is obviously due to the capacities of the pupils and 
not to anything inherent in the technique of the school as such. 

The absence of satisfactory age norms for some of the tests 
makes a further analysis of these data of doubtful value. The 
illustration from the reading tests amply illustrates one method 
by which the efficiency of the schools must, in the long run, be 
judged. The schools cannot be credited with the original capaci- 
ties of the children which come to them. They must, however, be 
charged with what happens to those children while under the 
tutelage and care of the school, and the method of educational 
quotients here illustrated marks a distinct forward step in the 
critical evaluation of school work. 

The significance of this method of evaluating school work is far 
reaching. In the first place, it means that test scale values must 
be stated in terms of ages of pupils as well as in terms of grade 
standards. It also means that teachers can be credited with good 
teaching of ordinary and even of inferior children, and that the 
mere accident that a group of pupils are of superior capacity will 
not in itself confer upon the teacher of that group the brand of 
superior teaching efficiency. By its finer analysis the method gives 
a truer measure of the elements involved in school achievement 
and is, therefore, fairer to pupils, teachers, and the general public. 

169 



CHAPTER IX 
AMERICAN HISTORY 

RECENT events of world-wide interest have emphasized the 
importance which attaches to a knowledge of American 
" history on the part of all active citizens. By general 
assent the basic facts of our history are proper subject matter for 
the elementary schools. The syllabus of the New York State 
Department of Education provides for teaching the essential facts 
about important personages connected with American history in 
the fifth grade, and the rural schools are advised "to begin this work 
about October first and continue it to completion with two lessons 
a week." For the seventh and eighth grades, the syllabus plans 
"200 lessons" in history and makes provision for correlating such 
material with geography and literature. 

In trying to evaluate the efficiency of the rural schools, therefore, 
it seemed pertinent to inquire as to the amount of historical knowl- 
edge which is possessed by the pupils. Accordingly two American 
history tests 1 were given to 2000 pupils in grades 7 and 8. 

It should be pointed out that the addition of the history tests to 
the examination program is something more than the mere addition 
of another test. It, doubtless, measures the schools in a different 
way than do tests in spelling or the fundamentals of arithmetic or 
handwriting. Into the teaching of these latter subjects the method 
of drill enters very largely. Whether or not pupils make high 
scores in these drill subjects depends to a great extent upon the 
amount of such drill which they have been given in school. The 
effect of what one may call rote drill is probably less important in 
an informational subject, such as American history. To a large 
extent good history teaching calls for another type of instruction 

1 Selected items from the Van Wagenen American History Scales. 
170 



and a different sort of skill in the teacher. The history tests used 
in the survey stress these differences, and the results, therefore, add 
much more to our knowledge of the schools than would another 
test in a drill subject. 

The History Tests 

Information Questions 

Two types of questions were used — information questions and 

thought questions. 1 The information questions were designed to 

show how many of the basic facts of American history were known 

by the pupils. The first and easiest question of this test was: 

"1. Name any man besides Columbus who made early explora- 
tions in America." 

The successive questions in this scale range upward in difficulty. 
The following representative questions chosen from successive 
levels of the scale indicate the scope of this examination : 

"11. Who was President of the United States when Louisiana 
was purchased?" 

"16. Arrange these events in the order in which they occurred 
by putting a '1' before the event that occurred first, a '2' before 
the event that occurred second, and so on until you have put a 
'7' before the event that occurred last. 

.-v Settlement of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

. . Adoption of the United States Constitution. 

. f Settlement of Jamestown. 

fj Battle of Yorktown. 

v* Capture of New Amsterdam by the English. 

.\ Declaration of Independence. 

..Fall of Quebec." 

'22. What new means of transportation came into use in the 
United States during each of the following periods: 1805 to 1815? 
1830 to 1840? 1890 to 1900?" 

1 Selected items from the Van Wagenen History Scales. Historical Informa- 
tion and judgment in pupils of Elementary Schools. Teachers College, 
Columbia University Contribution to Education, No. 101, 1919. The selection 
was made by Professor Van Wagenen and the scoring and evaluation of the 
results were done under his direction. 

171 



"24. Put a check mark V in front of each of the following 
things which the Southern states were in favor of between 1840 
and 1850: 

. . . .V. Wilmot Proviso. 

William Lloyd Garrison's 'The Liberator.' 

. . . .> Protection of slavery in the territories. 

Free Soil Party. 

..... The 'gag rule' of suppression of abolition petitions in 
Congress. 

. . . V Admission of California as a state. 

Protective tariff on manufactured goods." 

Thought Questions 
The second series of history questions call for more than a mem- 
ory of the facts of history. The facts are given in the question 
itself and the pupil is called upon to make a satisfactory inference 
from the given facts. In this series of questions the easiest item is, 

"1. In 1754, the English claimed the Ohio Valley. The 
French, however, had built Fort Duquesne on the Ohio River, 
near where Pittsburgh now stands. George Washington was 
sent by the English to demand that the fort be given up to the 
English, (a) What reply would you expect the French to make 
to Washington? (b) What would you expect the English to do 
next?" 

The range of difficulty upward is represented by the following 
selected samples : 

"4. In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, a machine 
for separating the cotton seed from the fiber. By the use of this 
machine one slave could clean fifty times as much cotton in a day 
as with the old machines or by hand, (a) What effect would 
this invention have upon the cost of raising raw cotton? (b) 
What indirect effect would it have upon the price of cotton goods? 
(c) What effect would it have upon the amount of cotton raised?" 

"10. In 1850, the principal occupation of Virginia was agri- 
culture. In Massachusetts at that time there were as many 
people engaged in manufacturing as in agriculture, (a) In which 
state would you expect to find the more cities at that time? (b) 
In which state would you expect to find more foreign-born people?" 

"16. In 1900 Baltimore and Boston had each a population of 
about 600,000; but there were 69,000 foreigners in Baltimore as 

172 



against 197,000 in Boston. New Orleans and Milwaukee were 
not far apart in total numbers in 1900, but Milwaukee had 
90,000 foreigners to 30,000 in New Orleans. Atlanta, with a 
population of nearly 100,000, had only about 3,000 foreign-born 
people in 1900 while St. Paul with a similar population had 47,000. 
What do these figures, which may be considered as typical, show 
about the population of the Southern cities as compared with the 
population of the Northern cities?" 

"17. The ninth and tenth amendments to the Constitution 
state clearly that Congress shall exercise only those powers given 
to it by the Constitution and that 'all other powers are reserved 
to the states.' Some of the states ratified the Constitution only 
upon being assured that such a provision would be added to it. 
Of what must the states have been afraid?" 

Quality of the Tests 

A number of considerations arise in regard to the validity of 
these history tests. In how far may the examinations as given be 
regarded as a valid measure of the achievements of the eighth grade 
pupils in American history? To what degree may these results be 
used as a valid measure of the teaching of history? It may be 
argued, for instance, that the time limit of twenty minutes was too 
short to allow pupils to do themselves justice. Some strength may 
be allowed to this argument, but the general observation of examin- 
ers was that the pupils usually quit work before time was called. 
An extension of time would, therefore, not have affected the median 
achievement very much if at all. In any case this could not have 
accounted for the variability among schools and districts since the 
time was the same for all. 

Again it may be urged that pupils might fail on the questions 
as given but might succeed on another list of questions. The 
extended experimental work which Professor Van Wagenen did in 
constructing the test renders this unlikely. Nor is it likely that 
another trial on the same or a similar test would give greatly differ- 
ent results. The coefficient of correlation for trials with two forms 
of the history tests ranges from .70 ± .01 to .77 =*= .005 (Pearson 
Products-Moment Method). These coefficients are figured on one 
school grade. The two types of tests are about equally reliable in 
terms of this measure of reliability. 

173 



The tests have also been checked against the results of the history 
examination given by the Regents in June, 1921. For the two 
tests combined, the coefficients based on all eighth grade cases 
available from one supervisory district are about .61 =*= .005 
(unlike signs). 

Table 57. — Coefficients of Correlation. (Pearson Products-Moment 
Method.) Two Trials with Parallel Forms of Van Wagenen History 
Scales 



Information . 



Thought. 



Boys .718 

Girls .697 

Both .77 

Boys .726 

Girls .751 

i Both .769 



P.E. 


.01 


P.E. 


.01 


P.E. 


.005 


P.E. 


.01 


P.E. 


.005 


P.E. 


.004 



While these correlations are not so high as one could wish for 
dependable measures, they do indicate a desirable constancy in the 
results of the two tests. 



History, Reading and Intelligence Tests 
Some interest attaches to the relation of the two history tests to the 
tests in reading and the intelligence examination which were given 
to the same pupils. In so far as this relation may be represented 
by raw coefficients of correlation the facts are given in Table 58. 



Table 58. — Coefficients of Correlation. Intelligence Examination, 
Delta 2, Reading Examination, Sigma 3, and Van Wagenen History 
Tests. 152 Cases in Grade 8 




Intelligence 

examination 

Delta 2 


Reading 

examination 

Sigma 3 


Combined score 

of Delta 2 and 

Sigma 3 


History f r = 
information . . \ 

{ P.E. = 
History f r = 

thought -j 

[P.E. = 
Combined his- f r = 
tory tests . . . . \ 

[P.E. = 


.45 


.50 


.54 


=<= .043 
.71 


± .041 

.78 


± .04 
.69 


± .028 
.63 


± .024 
.63 


± .03 
.79 


=«= .033 


± .035 


=*= .024 



Coefficient: History information and History thought = .60 =±= .035. 

174 



Apparently from these coefficients the "thought" test in history 
bears a very considerable resemblance to the Delta 2 examination. 
The resemblance of the history information test to the Delta 2 ex- 
amination is less evident. 

The coefficients range from .45 =*= .043 for the Delta 2 and the 
history information to .79 =*= .024 for the combined scores of Delta 2 
and Sigma 3 and the two history tests combined. There is appar- 
ently much greater difference between the history information test 
and either of the intelligence or reading tests than there is between 
either of these tests and the history thought test. For the history 
thought test and each of the other tests the coefficients are .71 and 
.78; the coefficient for the two history tests is .60 =*= .035. 

The significant relation between the results of the history tests 
and the combined scores in the Delta 2 and Sigma 3 examination 
may be seen further in Table 59. These figures, which are from the 
same group of pupils which furnished the data for the correlations 
in Table 58, show very great difference between the history achieve- 
ments of the first and fourth quartiles of this group. The twenty- 
five percent scoring lowest in the combined tests have an average 
of 34 points in the information test and 30 points in the thought 
tests. The highest twenty-five percent in the combined tests score 
49 points in each of the two history tests. To put the matter 
differently, the lowest group achieve seventh grade standing; the 
highest group greatly exceed eighth grade standing. The differ- 
ence between the two groups is considerably in excess of a full year 
of school progress. 

Table 59. — Average Score in History Tests for Lowest and Highest 
Twenty-Five Percents of Combined Delta 2 and Sigma 3 Scores 

Information test Thought test 

Lowest 25 percent 33.7 29.7 

Highest 25 percent 48.8 49.0 

Results of the Tests 
These tests were given in the order indicated in grades 7 and 8 
to every pupil in attendance on the day the examiner visited the 
schools. The results should show accurately the history teaching 
product in these schools. The net testing time allowed for each 
test was twenty minutes. 

175 



There will be small difference of opinion about the desirability of 
American citizens knowing the types of facts called for in the history 
of information test. And all will assent to the importance of such 
citizens being able to think about historical facts in the manner 
called for in the series of thought questions. Further, all will 
doubtless subscribe to the assumption that the public elementary 
school is the normal agency for teaching such facts and developing 
such skill. It would, therefore, be a distinct mark of merit if the 
public rural schools were found to be achieving this result. Such a 
finding would go far toward justifying the public expenditure in 
behalf of these schools. 

The efficiency with which the rural schools teach American 
history may best be observed by the results of the tests in grade 8. 

The scores in grade 7 indicate that the eighth grade results fairly 
represent the entire history situation in these schools. The pupils 
tested in this grade were within a few weeks of the end of their 
elementary course and their achievements may, therefore, be 
assumed to be a true measure of the elementary school product. 

The Information Test 

The facts are given for the information test in Table 60, where 
the distribution and median scores are available. 

Two comparisons from this table are pertinent to an evaluation 
of the rural schools. In the information test the New York City 
pupils in grade 8 score 42 points, and the pupils in grade 7 score 32 
points. 1 The median for the larger rural schools is 39, which is 
short of the New York City standard about one-third of a year's 
progress. In the case of the one- teacher schools, the score is 31, 
which is just below the New York City achievements in grade 
seven. The handicap of these one-teacher schools is, therefore, 
the equivalent of a full year of school work in terms of New York 
City progress. This deficiency is all the more serious in view of the 
large elimination in the eighth grade of the smaller schools. 

Also the advantage lies with the larger rural schools as compared 

with the smaller schools. Although these larger schools are still 

below the New York City achievements they are almost a full 

1 Computed by Professor Van Wagenen from data available. 

176 



year's progress ahead of the one-teacher schools. The bar diagram 
shown in Figure 32 gives visual representation to these facts. 



Table 60. — History Information. Distribution and Median Scores of 
Eighth Grade Pupils in One- and Four-Teacher Schools 

One-Room Four-Room 

3 2 

1-5 1 1 

6-10 8 5 

11-15 12 17 

16-20 27 31 

21-25 22 76 

26-30 54 96 

31-35 36 120 

36-40 34 138 

41-45 25 132 

46-50 19 112 

51-55 6 75 

56-60 24 

61-65 1 11 

66-70 3 

71-75 

Total 248 843 

Median score 31 39 

New York City, Grade 8 42 

New York City, Grade 7 32 




Hew York Rural 

One-teacher 

Grade Q 

New \6rK City 
Grade T 

New %K Rural 

four- teacher 

Grade 5 

New York City 
Grade 



Figure 32. — History information. Showing median achievement in grade 8, 
one- and four-teacher schools of New York rural schools and median achieve- 
ment of grades 7 and 8 in New York City schools 

12 177 



The Thought Test 
In Table 61 are shown the results of the test on thought questions. 
As in the case of the information tests the maximum score possible 
is 75. The larger schools have a median of 37 and the smaller 
schools a median of 29. The distributions, with medians, are 
given in Table 61, and the latter are shown graphically in Figure 32a. 

Table 61. — History Thought. Distribution and Median Scores of 
Eighth Grade Pupils in One- and Four-Teacher Schools 

One-Room Four-Room 

3 1 

1-5 1 8 

6-10 8 10 

11-15 16 23 

16-20 27 32 

21-25 39 63 

26-30 45 103 

31-35 43 127 

36-40 42 152 

41-45 14 130 

46-50 6 100 

51-55 3 57 

56-60 1 31 

61-65 3 

66-70 4 

71-75 1 

Total 248 845 

Median score 29 37 

New York City, Grade 8 42 

New York City, Grade 7 32 

The interpretation from the information tests already given may 
be repeated here for the thought tests. The four-teacher schools 
are slightly below the median of New York City achievement and 
the one-teacher schools are below the achievement of New York 
City seventh grades. 

These deficiencies in amount reach about a half year's progress 
for the larger schools and more than a year's progress for the 
smaller schools. 

How the school districts differ in history achievement is apparent 
from Table 62, which gives the median scores for both sets of ques- 
tions for the two types of schools. In certain of these districts the 
scores are high — distinctly higher than median New York City 

178 




New \6rk Rura.1 

One- teacher 

Grade 

New \brk City 
Grade T 

New York Rural 

four- teacher 

GradeS 

New York City 
Grade 



Figure 32a. — History thought. Showing median achievement in grade 8, one- 
and four-teacher schools of New York rural schools and median achievement of 
grades 7 and 8 in New York City schools 

scores. In others they are distressingly low. The range from 
the poorest group of schools to the best group of schools is approxi- 
mately equivalent to the progress of normal pupils through two 
years of schooling. 

Table 62. — History Thought and Information. One- and Four-Teacher 
Schools. Grade 8. Median Scores by Counties 







Counties 


Test 


School 


a 
to 

3 
>> 
e3 

U 


d 

o 

a 
:s 
U 


(53 

B 

~o 
U 

31 


o> 

•c 

W 
26 


B 
« 

31 


0) 

u 
d 

30 


a 

31 


0) 

d 
>> 

29 


u 

en 
<V 

o 
tn 

* 


o 
to 

<u 

W 

O 
26 


o 

bJD 
<V 

is 

en 

o 

31 


d 

o 

C/5 

be 
« 
*> 
3 


o 

d 
o 


History ( 
thought \ 


One-teacher 


27 


* 




Four-teacher . 


32 


39 


36 


40 


* 


33 


39 


32 


41 


37 


41 


36 


43 


History f 
informa- \ 
tion { 


One-teacher 


23 


* 


41 


28 


27 


34 


34 


37 


* 


30 


32 






Four-teacher . 


31 


39 


42 


37 


* 


32 


32 


37 


45 


49 


37 


38 


38 



The result of these history tests is in keeping with the results of 
the reading tests and is doubtless closely connected with the defi- 

179 



ciency of reading ability on the part of rural pupils. Children 
who cannot read have not the tools necessary to master American 
history. The lives of American leaders, the steady march of 
progress across the American continent, the industrial revolution, 
the writing of the American constitution, the social, economic and 
political evolution of the American nation are to them a closed 
book, closed as effectively as if it were written in a foreign language 
or were sealed under a combination lock. 

Events connected with the World War made us think much 
about our problem of Americanizing the foreigners who come to our 
shores. This is an important matter. It is equally important 
that our public schools shall lay the basis for Americanizing our 
native-born. The foundation of a genuine Americanization is a 
knowledge of American history, and the basis for acquiring this 
knowledge is an adequate mastery of the language in which that 
history is recorded. Judged by the degree to which their pupils 
have this knowledge and mastery, the rural schools of New York 
are distinctly and sadly deficient and the smaller schools most 
deficient of all. 

Attention has already been called to the fact that rural citizens 
now, as never before, need the ability to read about, understand and 
effectively grapple with complicated problems of the modern 
world — problems and situations that are shot through with the 
elements of economic, political and social forces. It cannot be too 
strongly stressed that the preparation of the future rural citizens 
of New York State is vitally connected with the teaching of Ameri- 
can history in the rural elementary schools in the year 1922. What 
the rural child learns of the intricate problems of effective citizen- 
ship, he learns largely in connection with his study of history. 
What promise of intelligent understanding is there for the future 
men and women if the boys and girls now in our schools are so 
poorly taught the fundamental facts in the study of our national 
life? Every individual interest of these future citizens and every 
vital interest of rural social life demand something better in the 
way of history teaching than the boys and girls of rural New York 
are now getting. 



1 80 



CHAPTER X 
SPELLING 

CLOSELY related in importance to the ability to read English 
is the ability to write it. Every intelligent person is called 
upon in the course of his life to write letters and to set down 
in readable form his own ideas upon topics of greater or less impor- 
tance to his own and others' welfare. Expression in written form is 
a very complicated process, involving a number of more or less 
separate abilities, among which is the ability to spell words. For- 
mal education everywhere recognizes the importance of teaching 
young people to spell, and recently there has been a distinct ten- 
dency to emphasize more than formerly the teaching of spelling in 
the high school and even in college classes. 

The justice of including a spelling test in an evaluation of school 
work is therefore obvious. Numerous lists of words standardized 
for frequency of occurrence and for spelling difficulty are now 
available. No claim is here made that the list used in the New 
York Survey is the best list. That it is a fair list and a good 
measure of spelling efficiency is attested by the sources from which 
it is derived and from the results obtained by its use elsewhere. 
The words as arranged were selected by Dr. F. S. Breed in connec- 
tion with the Virginia Survey. A quotation from the report of 
that survey will be our best description of the test. 

"For the purpose of this survey it was decided to attempt the 
construction of a test that would meet the following requirements: 
It should (1) conform to the type of test used by Ayres, namely, a 
column test; (2) economize the time of pupils and examiner; (3) 
contain words in the natural vocabulary of the children; (4) provide 
lists of words of equal difficulty for all the grades tested; (5) provoke 
in smallest degree misunderstanding during dictation because of 



the examiner's or pupil's dialect; (6) cover the range of ability 
represented in grades three to seven, and (7) yield a body of 
results that would lend itself to the application of approved 
methods of statistical treatment. 







Table 


63. — Regular 


Word List 








No. 


Words 


Column 

in Ayres 

scale 


Grade in 
Bauer and 


Mid-year percentage 
standard 


Absolute 






Jones lists j 


II 


IV 


V V 


I 


\ 


value 
II 


1 


come 


G 


2-2 












7.5 


2 


was 


H 


2-2 < 


n 










8.5 


3 


foot 


I 


2-2 


^8 










9.5 


4 


happy 


J 


2-2 


54 










10.5 


5 


could 


K 


2-2 


19 


92 








11.5 


6 


once 


L 


2-2 


n 


88 








12.5 


7 


pretty 


M 


2-2 ( 


56 


84 


92 






13.5 


8 


always 


N 


2-2 


58 


79 


88 . 






14.5 


9 


uncle 





3-2 


50 


73 


84 9 


2 




15.5 


10 


beautiful 


P 


4-3 t 


r2 


66 


79 8 


8 




16.5 


11 


surprise 


Q 


5-4 


U 


58 


73 8 


4 


c 


>2 17.5 


12 


vessel 


R 


5-5 




50 


66 7 


9 


i 


58 18.5 


13 


century 


S 


7-7 




42 


58 7 


3 


I 


54 19.5 


14 


invitation 


T 


7-7 




34 


50 6 


6 




J 9 20.5 


15 


necessary 


U 


6-6 






42 5 


8 




'3 21.5 


16 


experience 


V 


7-7 






34 5 





( 


>6 22.5 


17 


athletic 


W 


6-5 






.. 4 


2 


l 


58 23.5 


18 


convenient 


X 


7-7 






3 


4 


i 


>0 24.5 


19 


decision 
recommend 


Y 

z 


0-9 

0-8 










4 


[2 25.5 


20 








>4 26.5 













"The regular survey word list appears in Table 63. It consists 
of twenty words in the form of a scale, one word from each of 
columns G to Z, inclusive, of the Ayres scale. Words 2-11, inclu- 
sive, were used as the test or crucial words for grade three; 5-14, 
for grade four; 7-16, for grade five; 9-18, for grade six; and 11-20, 
for grade seven. As the percentage standards in the table indicate? 
these various tests of ten words each were of equal difficulty, 
according to the Ayres scale, for the grades mentioned in connec- 
tion with them. This arrangement of words was especially con- 
venient for testing rural and village schools where pupils of many 
grades, or all grades from three to seven, were tested at one time. 

182 



"In the fourth column of the table is seen the grade position 
occupied by the word in the spelling vocabularies prepared by 
Nicholas Bauer 1 and W. Franklin Jones. 2 These vocabularies 
contain the words most commonly used in the written compositions 
of children of various grades. Bauer confined his study to pupils 
in the New Orleans public schools, while Jones used the compositions 
of pupils in four different states. The first figure in the column 
showing grade position in each case represents the grade classifica- 
tion of the word in the Bauer list; the second, the grade classifica- 
tion in the Jones list. So far as possible words were selected for the 
survey test that satisfied the principle of childhood use, and on 
which Bauer and Jones gave identical grade indices. Much has 
been made of the principle of social use in studies of curriculum- 
making, and by social use has too often been meant merely adult 
use. The Ayres list of 1000 words is based wholly on adult use. 
It cannot be safely assumed that such a list fully satisfies the require- 
ments of childhood use. Unpublished studies made by the writer 
indicate clearly that vocabularies based on the two principles differ 
to a considerable degree. This difference is probably not due 
entirely to the probable error of the methods of deriving such 
vocabularies. 

"Under 'Mid-year Percentage Standards' appear the Ayres 
percentages of correct spelling for each word in each grade for which 
the test was constructed, and in the last column the absolute value 
of each word in terms of scale units. Each unit of value in this 
column represents a distance on the scale equal to one-fifth of a 
'sigma,' which in turn represents a unit of spelling difficulty. The 
numerical value for a given word represents the number of such 
difficulty units it is located above the point of zero difficulty on the 
scale. This zero point is assumed to be located at the point where, 
theoretically, it should come on the Ayres scale, namely, at the 
point where the second-grade group spells with one hundred percent 
accuracy. This point is one unit below the lowest published 

1 Nicholas Bauer: The Writing Vocabulary of Pupils of New Orleans Public 
Schools, Department of Superintendence, 1915. 

2 W. Franklin Jones: Concrete Investigation of the Material of English Spell- 
ing, University of South Dakota, 1914. 

183 



column of the Ayres scale and would represent the difficulty of 
words three units less difficult than the words 'it' and 'is,' two 
units less difficult than 'go' and 'at,' and one unit less difficult 
than 'me' and 'do.' This zero point is located fifteen units below 
the median of the third grade, slightly below Buckingham's assumed 
zero point, which was located about thirteen and one-half of the 
same units below the median of the third grade. Considering the 
difference in the conditions under which the two scales were devel- 
oped this difference in the location of the zero point is not at all 
surprising. 

"It is seen, by an examination of the absolute values in the last 
column of the table, that the words of the lists vary in difficulty 
from 7.5 to 26.5, and that the most difficult word in each grade is 
about twice as difficult as the least difficult word. 

"Such a point scale enables us to take account of the specific 
difficulty values of the various words in making our measurements 
of spelling achievement. Ordinarily, in attempts at exact measure- 
ment, the problem of scoring according to the difficulty of the 
individual words has been overcome by selecting a spelling list 
composed of words of equal difficulty. This plan did not seem 
economical in a survey of rural schools." 1 

Results 

The distribution of spelling scores for the crucial words of the 
tests for grades 4, 6 and 8 are given for 1 and 4 teacher schools in 
Tables 64 and 65. These tables show the percentages of correct 
spellings, the number of pupils in each of the three grades making 
each percentage, the total number of cases in each grade, the 
median percentage score and the median chronological ages of 
pupils in each of the three grades. 

The simplest interpretation of these results is in terms of the 
median percentages achieved by the several schools. The median 
scores for the two types of schools, together with the standard 
achievement for 84 cities throughout the country are gathered 
together in Table 66. The scores for the larger schools, and for the 

1 Virginia Public Schools, Part 2, pp. 92 ff. 
184 



eighth grade in the smaller schools, compare favorably with the 
standard for the 84 cities. In all of these grades the pupils achieve 
average or better than average results. Figure 33 gives a graphic 
picture of these facts for the two types of schools. The facts for 
grades 5 and 7 are not given but the quality of scores for these two 
grades are represented by the scores for the three grades reported. 1 

Table 64. — Spelling: Four-Teacher Schools. Grades 4, 6, and 8. Dis- 
tribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and Age for Each 
Grade 



Percent correct 


Grades 


4 


6 


8 


0-9 
10-19 
20-29 
30-39 
40-49 
50-59 
60-69 
70-79 
80-89 
90-99 
100 


12 
17 
46 
69 
66 
90 
110 
106 
77 
55 
18 


5 

14 

25 

50 

50 

91 

114 

108 

115 

88 

40 


3 

7 

13 
14 
31 
59 
89 
99 
111 
89 


Total 


666 


700 


515 






Median score 


63 


70 


84 






Median age 


10.7 


12.6 


14.6 







It is clear from Table 66 and Figure 33 that the larger schools 
achieve superior results in spelling. This fact is further emphasized 
by Table 67 and Figure 34 which give the percentage scores for the 
pupils of ages ten, twelve and fourteen represented in the three 
grades here reported. Discrepancies between the spelling achieve- 

1 The tabulation of scores for all five grades by a different method shows this 
to be true. 

185 



Table 65. — Spelling: One-Teacher Schools. Grades 4, 6, and 8. Dis- 
tribution of Scores by Grades. Median Score and Age for Each 

Grade 







Grades 




Percent correct 
















4 


6 


8 


0-9 


24 


3 




10-19 


33 


12 


5 


20-29 


52 


36 


7 


30-39 


45 


47 


14 


40-49 


64 


65 


19 


50-59 


68 


72 


32 


60-69 


87 


63 


41 


70-79 


71 


66 


51 


80-89 


31 


45 


51 


90-99 


15 


37 


41 


100 


2 


18 


25 


Total 


492 


464 


286 


Median score 


54 


60 


74 






Median age 


10.6 


12.5 


14.3 







Table 66. — Spelling: One- and Four-Teacher Schools. Grades 4, 6, and 8. 
Median Scores by Grades. Standard Score for Each Grade 



Schools 


Grades 


4 


6 


8 


One- room school 


54 
63 


60 
70 


74 


Four- room school 


84 






Standard, first half year . . . 


66.6 


66.6 


66.6 



186 



ments of the two types of schools, similar to those found in reading 
are easily apparent. If these figures are to be accepted for what 



Score 
66 



/ / 

1 U 



6rade4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade T Grade 8 

Figure 33. — Spelling: One- and four-teacher schools. Grades 4, 6, and 8. 
Median scores by grades. (Solid line = one-teacher schools. Broken line = 
four-teacher schools. Dotted parts of lines = grade omitted.) 

187 



they seem to show, it is apparent that the pupils in the larger schools 
have a better chance to learn correct habits of spelling than do the 
children in the smaller schools. 

Table 67. — Spelling: One- and Four-Teacher Elementary Schools. 
Grades 4, 6, and 8. Median Scores by Ages 



Schools 


Age in years 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 

70 
72 


14 

60 
79 


15 


/ One- room elementary schools — 
JNew Yor& | F our _ room elementary schools. . . 


56 
70 


52 
63 


57 
65 


63 
70 


59 
71 


68 
78 



10 Yean? 



It Years 



14 Years 




One-feacber schoob jour- teacher xhoob 



Figure 34. — Spelling: One- and four-teacher schools. Ten, twelve and four- 
teen year old pupils from grades 4, 6, and 8: Median scores by ages 



188 



CHAPTER XI 
ARITHMETIC 

THE New York syllabus in arithmetic is perfectly clear on 
the importance of adequate training in the fundamental 
processes. It opens with the following statements : 

"The work in arithmetic should, first of all, produce accuracy 
and rapidity in computation. Accuracy can be assured only by 
holding the pupil to exactly correct results and by making him de- 
tect and correct even the slightest error. 

"Rapidity of computation can be secured only through much 
practice and drill. Throughout the first three years of the work 
the entire time in the subject should be given to securing this accurate 
and rapid work in the fundamental operations." 

Then follow the details of the arithmetic course by half years 
with numerous injunctions for drill and memorization of processes. 
At the beginning of the seventh year the following general state- 
ment (seventh and eighth years) is given : 

"Pupils who have completed the work of the six preceding grades 
should be able (1) to read reasonably large numbers at sight and to 
write numbers rapidly from dictation; (2) to add problems five 
figures wide and 20 numbers deep accurately at a fair rate of speed, 
i. e., in about two minutes; (3) to perform all fundamental processes 
in arithmetic rapidly and accurately; (4) to reason quickly and 
explain simple problems; (5) to handle ordinary fractions — common 
and decimal — without hesitation; and (6) to comprehend the funda- 
mental principles of percentage and their applications. 

"Give plenty of oral drill in getting approximate results. This 
will tend to reduce error in computation. In business it is custom- 
ary to apply some kind of a check to every result obtained. No 
good mechanic or business man would think of letting his results 
stand without some checking. Pupils should acquire the verifica- 
tion habit. 

189 



"Mental arithmetic should occupy a large share of the time. 
Never allow pupils to use pencil if, in your judgment, the result 
should be obtained mentally. 

"In general, papers should be marked, as they are in business, 
largely by the accuracy of the result. If the result is wrong the 
paper is wrong. If the problem requires some interpretation a 
teacher may quite properly mark both for accuracy and for method. 

"Teachers should endeavor to get outside the book and to have a 
large amount of drill material ready for each exercise." 

The initial instruction for the eighth year is for "Rapid Calcula- 
tion Work." 

"In this drill include daily speed exercises. Set a reasonable 
time limit and hold the class up to it. This will fit the pupils for 
pressure work, which is bound to come in business life. It may 
include practice in the following: 

(a) Addition until pupils can add at the rate of from 75 to 100 
figures a minute. Use group method, as illustrated by the following 

example : 

3) 3 x 



2 9 2 

4 I 1 

4 



10 



5 



10 



5 / iV/ 3 

6 

5 I 

6 
4 



} 

1} 



10 



10 



1 1 10 5 } 



4 j 3 

49 48 

"At first combine only up to 10. Larger groups may be practised 
later. 

"Horizontal addition should be practised. Example: 10 pieces 
of cloth— 38, 82, 91, 46, 53, 67, 84, 75, 65, 69 = 670, at 50 cts. = 
$335. 

" (b) Multiplication, when multiplier is 11, 22, 33, 44, etc. Ex- 

190 



ample: 892 X 11 = 2 as unit figure; (9 + 2=11) 1 as tens; 
(8 + 9+1 carried = 8) 8 as hundreds; (8 + 1 carried = 9) 9 as 
thousands; final result 9812. Example: 596 X 22 = 13112. Same 
as preceding process except that each addition is multiplied by 
two before carried figure is added. 

"(c) Cost of articles sold by ton of 2000 pounds. Example: 
8942 pounds at $25.50 per ton = 8.942 X i}A of $25.50) = $114.01. 

" (d) Interest practice, short method given above. Only a few 
practical short methods should be given. This work will help to 
sustain interest and develop rapid thinking power of concentrated 
effort." 

With this emphasis upon drill work in fundamental process by 
the State Department syllabus, it is reasonable to expect that the 
public school children of the state would excel in arithmetical 
computation. As a measure of the validity of this expectation the 
Woody scales in Addition and Multiplication were given to all 
elementary pupils in grades 3 to 8 inclusive. 

The problems in both scales are arranged in an order of difficulty 
with very easy problems at the beginning and difficult ones at the 
end of the test. The following are representative examples for 
each of the two scales : 

Addition 

2 25 + 42 = $12.50 

3 16.75 
— 15.75 



547 

197 yi + K = 4.0125 

685 1.5907 

678 4.10 

456 8.673 

393 

525 
240 

152 25.091 + 100.4 + 25 + 98.28 + 19.3614 = 

Multiplication 

3X7= 5096 24 6.25 

6 234 3.2 



25 2% X 4^ X IK = .0963)4 
.084 

191 



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192 



Results 

The score in each of the tests is the number of problems having 
correct answers. For each of the two tests Woody has fixed stan- 
dard scores for the beginning of the eighth grade (September) as 
follows : 

Addition — 18.5 ; Multiplication — 18. 

Inasmuch as the New York tests were given in April and May, 
after the pupils had had six months or more in the grade, the New 
York scores should exceed the Woody standards. 



Table 69.— Arithmetic, Addition. Eighth Grades. Four-Teacher 
Schools. Distribution and Median Scores for Twelve Counties. 
Woody Standard, 18.5 





Names of counties 




















u 












Score 






rt 




V 


03 




CO 






e 
o 




Total 




M 

s 

a 
U 


c 
o 

U 


£ 

"o 
O 


'u 

W 




13 
a 

a 


G 
>> 

1 


J3 
O 

CO 

1 


a 

a; 

co 

o 


o 
to 

I 

O 


co 
OS 

c 
■> 
3 


2 

a 
o 

3 




10 








1 






2 


1 










4 


11 








8 


2 




1 


1 




2 




l 


16 


12 








13 






2 


5 








2 


22 


13 






4 


13 


2 


i 


6 


11 




5 




3 


48 


14 






4 


37 


4 


1 


12 


17 




5 


5 


6 


92 


IS 




i 


11 


64 


& 


1 


14 


26 


3 


7 


10 


12 


153 


16 


4 


3 


15 


81 


3 


3 


11 


32 


2 


7 


6 


22 


189 


17 


2 


1 


11 


61 


2 


2 


12 


30 


2 


4 


5 


20 


152 


18 




1 


8 


62 


2 




8 


17 


1 


1 


2 


20 


122 


19 




1 


2 


18 


1 




3 


12 


2 






8 


47 


Total 


9 


7 


55 


358 


19 


8 


71 


152 


12 


31 


28 


94 


845 


Median . . . 


16.4 


17.0 


16.6 


16.5 


15.5 


16.3 


16.0 


16.5 


16.5 


15.6 


15.9 


17.1 


16.5 



How nearly this valid expectation is realized may be observed 
in Table 68, which gives the distribution for twenty-four schools, each 
of which had ten or more pupils in grade 8, and in Table 69, where 
the several schools of a county are gathered into single distributions. 
One-teacher schools are not included in either Tables 68 or 69. 

The median score for the 845 eighth grade pupils in these larger 
schools is 16.5, almost two problems less than the Woody standard. 
(See Figure 35.) In fact this median score is but slightly more than 
13 193 



the sixth grade standard given by Woody. Only one among the 
twenty-four schools equalled in grade 8 the Woody standard for 
grade 7. The county groups merely combine the several schools 
within a single supervisory district and show essentially the same 
results. 



Table 70. — Arithmetic, Multiplication. Eighth Grades. Four-Teacher 
Schools. Distribution and Median Scores for Twelve Counties. 
Woody Standard, 18 





Names of counties 














a; 






fc 












Score 


3 


c 
o 




2 
S 

3 

3 


0) 


01 

u 


to 
3 

a 

S 
o 
H 




CO 
CO 

.3 
O 

CO 

1 


o 

M 

a> 

CO 

O 


o 

CO 

o 


c 

o 

co 
M 
C 
■> 

13 


o 

Sh 

c 
o 

2 


Total 


6 








1 


















1 


7 
























1 


1 


8 








1 


















1 


9 








2 


















2 


10 








9 


















9 


11 








12 






3 


3 










19 


12 






2 


28 






4 


2 




1 


3 


2 


43 


13 


1 




1 


22 




1 


6 


9 


3 


2 


4 




50 


14 




1 


2 


41 




1 


4 


10 




4 


4 


6 


73 


15 


3 




4 


47 


3 




14 


22 


2 


4 


4 


7 


112 


16 






11 


62 


3 




12 


31 


1 


6 


3 


10 


139 


17 


2 


4 


9 


56 


4 


2 


9 


21 


4 


6 


8 


20 


145 


18 


1 


2 


14 


49 


1 


3 


7 


29 


1 


6 


1 


19 


133 


19 


2 




7 


22 


4 




10 


18 


1 


2 


1 


17 


84 


20 






4 


5 




1 


2 


7 








12 


31 


Total 


9 


7 


55 


357 


17 


8 


71 


152 


12 


31 


28 


94 


843 


Median. . . 


17.5 


17.6 


17.8 


16.3 


17.1 


18.0 


16.4 


17.0 


17.0 


16.8 


15.8 


18.1 


16.8 



The multiplication scores are given by counties only in Table 70. 
The median for the entire group of 843 pupils is 16.8, which is 
within one problem of the standard. The schools of Tompkins 
and of Rochester (Monroe) equal the standard and Clinton and 
Columbia approximate it. From the figures in this table one must 
regard the attainments of these schools in multiplication as normal 
and satisfactory. 

In no phase of the examinations do the one-teacher schools 
achieve a showing so favorable as compared with that of the larger 
schools. As is apparent in Table 71, the smaller schools achieve 

194 



approximately the same results as the larger schools in grade 8 and 
fall short not to exceed one problem in grade 5. 

The figures are given for these grades only. Additional data for 
the other grades and for the two- and three-teacher schools tell the 
same story and there seems little need for multiplying evidence. 
There is everywhere inferior achievement as measured by the 
Woody norm, but a good status as measured by the results of the 





i i I i I i 1 I i 


Addition 


w/////w/^^^^ 








Muliiplicalion 


^^^^^^^ 




1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


( 


) I 4 


6 6 10 It 14 16 18 10 



6lh Grade Wxxfy 3fendord 

Figure 35. — Arithmetic, addition, multiplication. Four-teacher schools. 
Grade 8. Comparison of median scores with Woody Standards 

test in other places. In what may be considered good city schools 
the pupils often fail to measure up to this standard so that the 
standard may be regarded as somewhat severe as a measure of what 
good schools are actually achieving. As desirable goals of achieve- 
ment the Woody Standards may be accepted as ends to be attained, 
and the schools of New York would do well to strive to attain these 
standards. 

Table 71. — Arithmetic, Addition. One- and Four- Teacher Schools. 
Grades 5 and 8. Median Scores by Grades. Woody Standards 





Grade 5 


Grade 8 


One-teacher schools 


13.4 
14.1 
14.0 


16.2 


Four-teacher schools 

Woody standards, September scores 


16.5 
18.5 



195 



In addition to the Woody scales in the fundamentals, there are 
available the results of an arithmetical reasoning test of twenty 
problems. This is Exercise 2 of the Delta 2 Intelligence Examina- 
tion (see Chapter VIII), which was given to all elementary school 
pupils. The results of this test in terms of median scores are shown 
in Table 72 for grades 3 to 8 inclusive. The data are given for small 
and large schools separately. As compared with the standard for 
the several grades both types of schools fall low in most grades. 
The smaller schools are uniformly lower than the larger schools 
although the difference in grade 5 is slight. 

Table 72. — Arithmetical Reasoning: Exercise 2 of Intelligence Ex- 
amination, Delta 2. One- and Four-Teacher Schools. Grades 3 
to 8. Median Scores by Grades 





Grades 




3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


Standard 


5.0 
3.9 
4.9 


7.0 

5.5 
5.6 


9.0 
6.6 

7.7 


10.5 
9.0 

9.8 


11.5 
10.4 
12.1 


13.0 


One-room schools 


11.3 


Four-room schools 


12.3 



It would seem from the facts here presented that the New York 
schools in general achieve better results in teaching the fundamental 
operations in arithmetic than they do in teaching arithmetical 
reasoning. The latter is more difficult to teach, more difficult to 
find satisfactory drill exercises for, probably much more dependent 
on the native capacities of the pupils, but withal much more 
important as an acquisition for school children. 

How distinctly superior are the reasoning achievements in the 
larger schools maybe seen in Table 73, where the median scores for 
pupils in the two types of schools are given by ages. There is not 
a single age group represented in this table where there is less than 
a year's difference in favor of the larger schools. The ten-year-old 
in the larger school reasons better than the eleven-year-old in the 
smaller school and the twelve-year-old in the larger school better 
than the thirteen-year-old in the smaller schools. How significant 

196 



this difference of a year really is will be apparent to any one familiar 
with the facts of school elimination and of later opportunities for 
schooling. 



Addition 




Reasoning //, 
Ability 



a 10 12 14 ie la to 



One-teacber schoob lour- feacber school: 



Figure 36. — Arithmetic: Addition, multiplication and reasoning. One- and 
four-teacher schools. Grade 8. Median scores 



Table 73. — Arithmetical Reasoning: Exercise 2 of Intelligence Ex- 
amination, Delta 2. One- and Four-Teacher Schools. Grades 3 to 8. 
Median Scores by Ages 





Ages in years 




7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


One-room 
schools. . 


3.0 


3.8 


4.8 


5.6 


7.4 


8.3 


9.3 


9.4 


10.5 


9.9 






Four-room 
schools. . 


5.8 


5.1 


6.6 


7.6 


8.4 


9.S 


10.7 


11.6 


10.05 


10.4 


10.7 





197 



CHAPTER XII 
ALGEBRA 

IT WILL be recalled that in selecting schools for testing all the 
schools of a supervisory district were included. In this way 
tests were given to all high school pupils of a district whether 
these pupils were found in large, well-organized high schools or in 
small classes connected with upper elementary grades in smaller 
schools. The achievements of these high school pupils in reading 
have already been noted. It remains to give the results from the 
algebra and Latin tests. 

The algebra tests, 1 which were given to all pupils who had studied 
the subject three months or more and who, at the time of the test, 
were studying it, were those devised by Dr. H. G. Hotz. Two tests — 
Addition and Subtraction, and Equation and Formula, Series A — 
each requiring twenty minutes of the pupil's time, were given to 
about a thousand high school students. Sample problems from 
each of the two scales will make clear the nature of the test. 

Equation and Formula 

" Solve the following equations and formulae: 

1. 2x=4. 

6. 10-llz=4-8z. 
14. 3m+7n=34 
7m+8n = 46 

6x-2 3x2+13 

23> x+3 ~~ 3_ x»-9 

25. V^T-x^-l." 

1 Hotz, H. G.: Algebra Scales. Teachers College Bureau of Publications. 

198 



Addition and Subtraction 
Carefully perform the operations as indicated. 

1. 4r+3r+2r = 

10. 8c-(-6+3c) = 

1S J___*L = 
10, a-x a 2 -x= 

23. \/20 + \/45 + y/YJS = 

The Hotz tests are based on the type of algebra prescribed in the 
New York Syllabus. For "elementary algebra" this syllabus covers 
the following topics: 

Algebraic language 
Elementary graphs 
Negative numbers 
Fundamental operations 
Factoring 
Fractions 

Simple (linear) equations, both numeric and literal, containing 
one or two unknown quantities 
Roots 

Quadratic equations in one unknown 
Simultaneous equations involving quadratics 

Obviously, the tests call for no algebraic information or skill 
which is not provided for in the curriculum of the New York rural 
schools. The results of the tests may, therefore, be taken as a 
measure of the fidelity with which the schools follow this course of 
study and the efficiency with which the subject is taught. 

The standards for these tests are based on the achievements of 
pupils in good city schools. The tests were used in the surveys of 
public schools in Virginia, North Carolina and Kentucky, and com- 
parative scores from these states are given in Table 76, where may 
also be found the Hotz standards and the New York median scores. 

Record was made of the time each pupil had studied algebra and 
the results are tabulated in terms of this time. Most of the students 
examined are included in the group which had studied algebra one 
school year or about eight school months. It was not always easy 
to determine this time element from the student's statement or 
even from that of the teacher or from the two combined. Many 

199 



students who were apparently repeating the subject reported the 
time of the first year and that of the current year combined. The 
teacher's record was based on the time the class had studied the 
subject. Wherever the records of the pupil and the teacher dis- 
agreed, the teacher's record, if at all clear, was accepted. In many 
cases the conflicting records were insoluble and the pupil's score 
was, therefore, discarded. 

The time records finally accepted, in general, give an advantage 
to the New York schools. Thus, in Tables 74-75 are included 
some pupils who had studied algebra three months the previous 
year and eight months during the year the tests were given. Only 
this so-called 8-months group are here reported, since no material 
additional help is afforded to interpretation by the three, six, or 
twelve months groups. 

In Tables 74-75 are given the distributions of scores for each of the 
two tests for the "8-months" group. The median scores for the 
several school groups given in this table are based on too few cases 
in many of the schools for any sweeping comment as to individual 
schools. The teachers at Ledyard, Kinderbrook No. 2 and Am- 
herst might very well inquire, however, concerning the methods 
by which the schools at Parker, Scarsdale and New Haven accom- 
plish superior results in addition and subtraction. 

The median scores for the two types of schools, which are given 
together in Table 76, show that in general the larger New York 
schools are achieving satisfactory results in the fundamentals of 
algebra. 

It will be observed in this table that the New York scores are 
consistently higher than those from Virginia, North Carolina and 
Kentucky rural schools. The larger New York schools not only 
exceed the records for all of these states, but exceed the Hotz 
standards by a slight margin in each of the two tests. 

The table shows separately the scores for a junior high school in 
the city of Rochester, for one in the city of Buffalo and for the 
consolidated school at Greigsville. The results show that the larger 
rural schools are teaching the fundamentals of algebra as well as 
are those schools where the tests were given for the sake of securing 
comparative scores. If we admit that formal algebra of the tradi- 



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tional type is a proper subject for beginning high school pupils, 
then we may conclude that the pupils in these larger rural schools 
are being as well served as are pupils in good schools throughout 
the country. 

Table 76.— Algebra, Hotz: Addition and Subtraction Tests and Equa- 
tion and Formula Tests. Median Scores for Pupils Studying for 
8 Months 

Addition and Equation and 

subtraction formula 

Hotz standards 7.5 7.6 

New York less than 4 teachers 5.8 6.0 

New York 4 and more teachers 7.6 8.0 

Rochester 6.1 8.2 

Buffalo 6.1 5.3 

Greigsville 7.1 7.7 

North Carolina (* ura1 -.; 3.7 4.2 

\ Large city 3.9 4.5 

Virginia / Rural 5 ' 2 4 ' 6 

Virginia j Large d( . y 5 6 ^ 

tr . , / Rural 3.8 4.8 

Kentucky ( Qty 50 6 « 

Not so much, however, may be said for the pupils in the smaller 
schools. The discrepancy which appeared so markedly in the results 
of the elementary school tests appears also here. These smaller 
schools, while scoring better than schools of similar type in the 
other states represented in this table, are distinctly below the 
achievements of the larger rural schools in New York state, below 
the junior high schools in Rochester and Buffalo, below Greigsville, 
below the Hotz standard, and just about on a par with the larger 
Virginia cities. The reason for these inferior scores is not obvious 
from any data at hand. The fact, however, is clear. The pupils in 
these smaller schools are less efficient in their mastery of algebraic 
fundamentals as represented in the two Hotz scales used in this 
survey. 



2 OS 



CHAPTER XIII 

LATIN 

IATIN is an optional study in New York high schools. It is, 
however, required for entrance to most eastern colleges . There 
"■* are three college preparatory courses: one for the diploma in 
Arts, one for the diploma in Science, and one for the diploma in 
Engineering. Latin is required in the first course. In the State De- 
partment syllabus covering Latin, both vocabulary and the reading 
of "easy connected Latin" are stressed for the first two years. "This 
syllabus, then, while emphasizing for the first two years a definite 
Latin vocabulary and the study of English words derived from Latin, 
is also planned to help teachers to equip their pupils to read Latin 
more under standingly and more readily than is usual at the present time." 
"Mastery of vocabulary, mastery of inflections, mastery of the 
essential principles of syntax, are things greatly desired but not 
often attained. These features are emphasized and goals of attain- 
ment by half years are clearly set." 

Vocabulary and Sentence Reading 
A vocabulary of 250 words arranged under "verbs, nouns, etc.," 
is prescribed for each half-year. "It is recommended that at least 
once a month the words encountered in the text-book be checked 
on the syllabus list and thoroughly mastered. At the end of a given 
half-year it will doubtless be found that a large percentage of the 
syllabus words has been met in the text-book. The remaining 
words should then be mastered." 

That a fair mastery of the prescribed vocabulary is expected may 
be gleaned from this quotation: 

"If strong emphasis is laid upon acquiring this working vocabu- 
lary, the pupil should have at command 90 percent or more of the 
1000 words laid down for the first two years." 

204 



Ill view of the emphasis thus placed upon Latin vocabulary and 
sentence reading by the course of study, and of the further fact that 
these elements are stressed by annual state-wide examinations, it 
appears that tests based upon these linguistic elements would 
reveal the efficiency of the teaching in these schools. As a measure 
of this product, use was made of the Henmon 1 vocabulary and 
sentence tests. The content of the vocabulary tests is derived from 
"239 words common to thirteen first-year books and to Caesar, 
Cicero and Virgil." The sentence tests "contain no words not 
found in this standard vocabulary." The particular vocabulary 
tests used in the New York survey— Tests 1 and 2— consisted of 50 
words, 41, or 82 percent, of which are contained in the New York 
syllabus for the first year. Should we apply the syllabus measure 
of accuracy, namely, 90 percent, to the entire list the average New 
York score would be 45 words correctly translated. Should we 
consider only the 41 words found in the New York syllabus the 
score would be 36.9 words per pupil or an accuracy percentage of 74. 

Although the syllabus requirement for connected Latin is not so 
definite, almost all of the words of the sentence test are to be found 
in the New York list for the first two half-years, so that the material 
has probably all been covered once at the time of the tests. 

For both the vocabulary and sentence tests, Henmon has pub- 
lished "standard scores obtained in June" for each of the four 
years of high school Latin so that the New York scores may be 
compared with the achievements of good schools in other parts of 
the country. 

Results of Vocabulary Test 

The distributions of scores for all the schools tested in thirteen 
counties are given in Table 77. The first fact outstanding from this 
table is the wide range of knowledge shown by the pupils in these 
schools. Almost everywhere the range is from less than twenty 
percent up to 70, 80, 90, and even 100 percent. 

There are counties, such as Cayuga, Clinton, Otsego and West- 
chester, where the median achievement as measured in percentage 

1 Henmon Latin Tests, World Book Company, 1921. Journal Educational 
Psychology, Nov. and Dec, 1917, and March, 1920. 

205 



scores just about equals Henmon's June standards. With a month 
of school yet remaining it is fairly certain that these schools would 
exceed the standard score by the end of the year. On the other 
hand, it is highly doubtful if schools scoring a median of 50 or less 
in May will be able to reach standard quality in June. 



Table 77. — Latin: Vocabulary Test. Large and Small High Schools. 
Grade 9. Distribution of Percentage Values. Median Scores by 
Counties 





c3 

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C 

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O 
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8 



a 


H 


0-5 
6-10 
11-15 
16-20 
21-25 
26-30 
31-35 
36-40 
41-45 
46-50 
51-55 
56-60 
61-65 
66-70 
71-75 
76-80 
81-85 
86-90 
91-95 
96-100 


i 
i 

3 

's 

8 

3 
2 
4 
1 
1 




i 
i 

2 

2 

1 

1 
2 
1 




3 

2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 
3 
2 
2 


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'5 
2 
6 

11 
7 
9 
7 
4 

16 
3 
9 
4 
3 


'2 
1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 
1 


1 

"i 
2 
1 
3 
1 
2 
2 
2 
1 

1 

1 
1 




2 

1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
3 
3 

1 


'2 

2 
2 
2 
3 
5 
4 
2 
6 
2 
1 

4 

1 


1 

2 

5 

'2 
1 
2 
3 

2 

3 

3 


i 
1 
3 
1 
3 
3 
3 

6 

2 

7 

5 

2 

'5 
2 
3 

1 


2 

2 

1 
6 
5 
4 
5 
9 
4 
2 
2 
3 
1 


1 
1 

1 

2 
1 
8 
2 
6 
3 
5 
2 
3 
1 
4 


2 
3 

13 
7 

19 
17 
23 
32 
41 
37 
43 
26 
43 
19 
35 
13 
16 
1 
2 


Total 


27 


11 


28 


88 


10 


19 


15 


36 


24 


48 


46 


40 


392 


Median .... 


64 


65 


52 


57 


51 


42 


69 


49 


49 


52 


64 


59 


56 



Sweeping generalizations must be cautiously made from the 
small number of cases reported for most districts. If one were 
disposed to argue from the cases of individual pupils, it would be 
possible to make a case even for a district with the lowest median 

206 



score. In Oswego county, with a median score for 19 pupils of 42 
percent, there are three pupils who are conspicuously good. These 
three were all in one school. In other schools there were pupils of 
equal intelligence and of equal reading ability who scored 32, 34 
and 48 in Latin. Were these excellent students not included, the 
median score for the group would drop to about 35. In Otsego 
county to take the highest-scoring group there is no pupil who 
scores so low as 35 and about half score up to 70 points. 

An examination of the column showing totals, with a median 
score for the group of 56, and 84 pupils, or about one-fifth of all 
scoring less than 40 percent of correct responses, raises serious 
question as to the advisability of trying to teach Latin to these 
pupils. Even the most ardent advocate of the value of Latin 
would doubtless admit that high school pupils are hardly benefitted 
by being exposed to Latin unless they really learn to recognize the 
meaning of the basic Latin words. Judged by the criterion of this 
test, at least twenty percent of these pupils have spent a year on the 
subject with little or no actual achievement. Either these pupils 
should be effectively taught or they should apply their time to 
other things. On the other hand, there are many pupils who by the 
measure of the test do achieve good results. For them the teaching 
of Latin in these schools is effective. 

If one is to judge the teaching of Latin vocabulary by the median 
scores of the several groups, the New York rural schools appear to 
teach less well than do the schools from which Henmon secured his 
standards. Only one district of the twelve listed in Table 77 has a 
median score equal to the norm. Three others approximate it, but 
whole districts score so low as to prevent any genuine comparison. 

The situation is, of course, less favorable if one compares the 
actual scores with the New York expectancy of 90 percent of the 
words in the syllabus list, or of 74 percent of the entire fifty. Schools 
scoring fifty percent or less are, of course, too low to make compari- 
son significant. To be sure, the pupils had yet a month of schooling 
and these medians might have proved higher at the end of the term. 
Putting the best possible interpretation upon them, however, the 
results are in no sense flattering to the Latin teaching in the rural 
schools. 

207 



Results of the Sentence Test 
The all or none method of scoring the sentence tests inevitably 
renders the scores low. A sentence may be correctly translated in 
most of its elements, but if not correct throughout, the score for 
that sentence is zero. This method makes the scoring more objec- 
tive and less dependent on the individual judgment of the scorer 
than would a method of allowing partial credits, but many Latin 
teachers feel that the partial credit method would be fairer to 
pupils and to the measurement of Latin teaching efficiency. What- 
ever justice may inhere in this argument, it remains true that the 
scores for the New York schools are directly comparable with 
Henmon's norms, since they are secured by the same method of 
scoring. 

Table 78. — Latin. Sentence Test. Large and Small High Schools. 
Grade 9. Distribution of Percentage Values. Median Scores by 
Counties 



















R 






fci 












c3 




CD 








cn 




CD 

■M 

cn 










o 

a 




S 

© 
U 


.52 


B 

CD 

w 


en 

o 


CD 
cn 

o 


C/3 


"J2 

I 

o 

H 


CD 
P 
>> 


cn 

CD 


CD 

£ 
a 

o 


3 


0-9 


l 


l 


6 


12 


3 


12 


1 


8 


2 


15 


5 


3 


69 


10-19 


4 


3 


6 


18 


2 


2 


3 


8 


5 


12 


7 


7 


77 


20-29 


15 


3 


11 


40 


4 


3 


7 


14 


12 


10 


19 


17 


155 


30-39 


5 


2 


4 


9 


1 




4 


3 


5 


5 


8 


10 


56 


40-49 


2 


2 


1 


5 




1 




1 




6 


4 


3 


25 


50-59 








3 














1 




4 


60-69 
















2 




i 






3 


Totals 


27 


11 


28 


87 


10 


18 


15 


36 


24 


49 


44 


40 


389 


Medians. . . 


26 


25 


22 


23 


20 


8 


25 


21 


24 


18 


25 


26 


23 



The results for the sentence test are given in Table 78. Sixty- 
nine pupils or about one-sixth of all score less than 10 percent of 
correct translations, which means that they are not credited with a 
single correct translation. The median for the group is 23 percent 

208 



and only four school districts score fully equal Henmon's standard 
of 25 percent correct for June classes. 

There are many students who in terms of the test are mastering 
connected Latin, almost one-half of all scoring equal to the standard. 
In one group of 44 pupils, only 12 fell below this mark and in 
another group of 40 only ten scored so low. On the other hand, 
there were 12 in a group of 18 who scored zero and in another group 
of 49 fifteen failed to make a single correct translation. Despite 
its lack of fine discriminative capacity the sentence test, therefore, 
shows the same type of condition revealed by the vocabulary tests — 
wide range of individual achievement, wide differences among the 
schools, and a Latin achievement for whole districts below accept- 
able standards of accomplishment. 

Table 79.— Henmon Latin Test. First Year High School Pupils Who 
Have Studied Latin 1 School Year, 8 to 11 Months. Median Scores 
for Vocabulary and Sentence Tests; Also Standard Scores 

Vocabulary Sentence 

Henmon standards 66 25 

New York expectancy 74 

New York achievement 56 23 

Rochester 59 30 

Greigsville 55 28 

Table 79 gives a summary statement of all the Latin tests in 
New York rural schools and provides comparative scores from 
Rochester and Greigsville. The tests were given in these last two 
schools for comparative purposes. In general, the rural schools are 
teaching Latin less well than are good schools throughout the 
country as measured by the sentence test, and less well than Roch- 
ester and Greigsville. This is particularly true when the ages of 
the pupils are considered. Rochester pupils with a median age of 
14.8 years score better than the larger rural New York schools with 
a median age of 15.1 years. 



14 209 



CHAPTER XIV 
LARGER SCHOOL UNITS 

IN RECENT years the consolidated school has been widely 
recommended as an effective means for improving rural educa- 
tion, and in New York state as well as elsewhere considerable 
consolidation has taken place. The test results in the survey 
apparently justify such larger school units. Almost without 
exception the median test scores are higher in the larger schools 
than they are in the smaller one-teacher schools. Although these 
differences have already been stressed in the several chapters 
where the several tests are discussed, it is so important a matter that 
a further word may be justified. The matter may best be presented 
through the summary tables, some of which have been already 
presented in previous chapters, but the importance of which in this 
connection justifies a repetition here. 

Intelligence Examination, Delta 2 
Inasmuch as the intelligence examination, Delta 2, is probably the 
best single measure of all the factors involved in school efficiency 
which we have available, the results of this measure may be pre- 
sented first. In Table 80 the median scores and the median ages 
are given for grades 3 to 8 inclusive for one-, two-, three-, and four- 
teacher schools. 

Judged by the median ages for the several groups, the four types 
of schools represented in this table are very much alike. Third 
grade pupils in one-teacher schools and in two-teacher schools have 
median ages of 9.6 years. In the three-teacher schools they are .1 
year older; in the four- teacher schools they are four- tenths of a 
year or nearly five months younger. In no grade, however, does the 
difference in median ages exceed five-tenths of a year, or six months 



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for the several types of schools. In general the differences which do 
exist are due to the younger ages of the pupils in the larger schools. 
If, however, attention is given to the median test scores the 
advantage is decidedly with the larger schools. In grade 3 the 
superiority is about 13 points as between the one- and the four- 
teacher schools. This difference is equal to about .7 of the growth 
which these pupils make in a year. When this advantage is com- 
bined with the younger age, it appears that the larger schools have 
the advantage of more than a full year of progress. 

Table 81. — Intelligence Examination: Delta 2. One-, Two-, and Three- 
Teacher Elementary Schools. Grades 3-8. Four-Teacher Elemen- 
tary Schools and All High Schools. Grades 3-12. Median Scores by 
Ages 





Ages in years 




7 


8 


9 


10 


11 

71 
63 
66 
79 


12 

75 
85 
70 
93 


13 

84 
85 
91 
99 


14 

86 
90 
97 

115 


15 

86 

101 

91 

125 


16 

89 
90 

132 


17 
79 

142 


18 
132 


19 
127 


20 


One-room elem. 
schools, grades 
3-8 


21 
23 


29 

28 
41 
41 


38 
39 

48 
58 


48 
48 
63 
68 




Two-room elem. 
schools, grades 
3-8 




Three-room elem. 
schools, grades 
3-8 




Four-room elem. 
schools and all 
high schools. . 


43 


137 



While subject to slight variations in certain grades for the two- 
and three-teacher schools, the same facts appear for each succeeding 
higher grade. In grade 6, for instance, the point where a large 
elimination occurs in the one-teacher schools, the pupils in the larger 
schools are three-tenths of a year younger and score about six- 
tenths of a year better, making a difference of almost a full year. 
Due to the large elimination of older pupils in the one- teacher schools, 
the median age of seventh grade pupils is only six-tenths of a year 
greater than that of sixth grade pupils in these schools. Their low 



scores for grades 7 and 8 are, therefore, not connected with the in- 
creased age which is their due. Were these older pupils here included, 
the median scores would be lower still. Despite this advantage, how- 

Soore 
U3 



115 
105 
95 
65 
75 
65 
55 
43 
35 
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11 



it 



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14 15yo 



Figure 37.— Intelligence Examination, Delta 2. One-teacher elementary 
schools, grades 3-8. Four-teacher elementary schools and all high schools, 
grades 3-12. Median scores by ages 

213 



ever, the eighth grade pupils in these smallest schools score but 101 
points, which is less by 3 points than the seventh grade score in the 
larger schools which have retained a larger percentage of their older 
pupils. 

The superiority of the larger schools stands out even more 
clearly when the age of the children rather than the school grades 
is made the basis of the grouping. This is done in Table 81, using 
the same data as were used in Table 80. If one age group here 
shown may be regarded as more unselected than another, it is age 
12. For this age the difference in score is 18 points, which is 
greater than the difference between the medians of grades 5 and 6 
in any of the four types of schools shown in Table 80. To be sure 
the figures for the larger schools as given here include high school 
pupils. However, almost none of the 12-year-olds are in high 
schools. The comparison is, therefore, between two types of 
elementary schools, and the difference in favor of the larger school 
is in excess of the difference between the two school grades in which 
most of these pupils are found. (See Figure 37.) 

Table 82. — Intelligence Examination: Delta 2. One- and Four-Teacher 
Elementary Schools. Grades 3 to 8. Percentile Scores 



1 




Low- 
est 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


Me- 
dian 


Total 
cases 


o 




score 


























3 


One 





9 


14 


17.5 


22.5 


26 


29 


34 


40 


48.5 


83 


26 


446 




Four 


1 


19.5 


25 


30 


35 


39 


44 


49 


56 


68 


98 


39 


412 


4 


One 





20 


24 


33.5 


38.5 


44 


49.5 


55 


61.5 


70 


108 


44 


526 




Four 


1 


28.5 


37.5 


46 


53 


57 


62 


67.5 


76 


87 


118 


57 


728 


5 


One 


6 


34 


48 


54 


59.5 


65 


69.5 


74.5 


80 


90 


123 


65 


460 




Four 


1 


42 


52.5 


61 


68.5 


75 


81 


90 


95 


103 


135 


75 


669 


6 


One 


21 


48 


63.5 


69.5 


76 


81 


90 


97.5 


98.5 


107 


135 


81 


480 




Four 


21 


61.5 


69 


75 


82 


91 


99.5 


102.5 


108.5 


118 


145 


91 


713 


7 


One 


31 


65 


76 


83 


89.5 


94 


97 


103 


109 


120 


163 


94 


290 




Four 


26 


74.5 


86 


93 


99 


104 


110 


115 


121 


128.5 


158 


104 


587 


8 


One 


51 


83.5 


88 


92.5 


96 


101 


105 


110 


116 


122.5 


143 


101 


302 




Four 


56 


92 


99 


105 


110 


115 


120 


125 


131 


139 


163 


115 


566 



For the sake of emphasis the data may be presented in the form 
of percentile scores. This is done for the one- and four-teacher 

214 



schools in Table 82. The figures across the top of the table indicate 
the percentile points and the figures in the body of the table show 
the score at each percentile for the several grades indicated on the 
left of the table. The medians and the number of cases are indi- 
cated at the right. Almost any way this table is read — by lowest 
score, by highest score, by median, or by the score for any percentile 
group — the larger schools are shown to be superior. 



Reading Examination, Sigma 3 
If we turn to the results of the reading test, the story is essentially 
the same as may be observed in Table 83. Grade for grade, the 
larger schools exceed the norm, and grade for grade, with one excep- 
tion, the smaller schools fall short. As in the case of the intelli- 
gence test the difference between the two types of schools is about 
the equivalent of a year of progress. 

Table 83.— Reading Examination: Sigma 3, Form B. One-, Two-, Three-, 
and Four-Teacher Elementary Schools in -All Counties. Four- 
Teacher Schools Include All Schools with Four or More Teachers. 
Median Scores and Median Ages for Grades 5-8 





Grades 


Types of schools 


5 


6 


7 


8 




Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


f 


31.5 




41.7 




55.3 




65.8 




Two-teacher. . . . { 
Three-teacher. . \ 
Four-teacher . ... \ 


28^9 


11.9 


49J 


12.3 


53^9 


13.4 


715 


14.4 


40.4 


11.7 


49' 


12.7 


65^5 


13.9 


71* 


14.4 


4L6 


11.9 


55' 


11.9 


70^5 


13.6 


80> 


14.6 




11.7 




12.6 




13.5 




14.3 


Norm 


31 


50 


68 


76 





















215 



In Table 84 the scores in the upper grade reading test are given in 
terms of the ages of the pupils. Ten-year-old pupils in one-room 
schools are here shown with a median score of 38 and in the four- 
teacher schools with a score of 56. This difference of 18 points is 
more than a year's improvement. The difference for other ages is 
not so great, but it is constant throughout the table, showing a 
uniform superiority of the larger school units in developing reading 



Table 84. — Reading Examination: Sigma 3, Form B. One,-Two-, and 
Three-Teacher Elementary Schools. Grades 5-8. Four-Teacher 
Elementary Schools and All High Schools. Grades 5-12. Median 
Scores by Ages 



Ages 



10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 



One-room elem. schools, 

grades 5-8 

Two-room elem. schools, 

grades 5-8 

Three-room elem. schools, 

grades 5-8 

Four-room elem. schools 

and all high schools 



38 
29 
48 
56 



42 
37 
41 

57 



45 
54 

48 
63 



67 
45 
54 
71 



62 
61 
51 

82 



67 

46 
93 



59 



110 



66 



105 



111 



ability on the part of pupils. The figures of Table 84 are shown 
graphically in Figure 14. The horizontal lines marked 5, 6, 7, 8, 
respectively, represent for these grades the probable median 
achievements in average schools. The full drawn curve represents 
by ages the achievements of pupils in the larger schools. The 
dotted line shows the results for the one- teacher elementary schools. 



Combined Scores 

The scores for the intelligence and reading examinations com- 
bined are shown in Table 88, with the same obvious advantage in 
the larger schools. The bar diagram, Figure 38 } makes the differ- 
ences graphic. 

216 



Table 85. — Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examina- 
tion, Sigma 3, Combined Scores. One- and Four-Teacher Elementary 
Schools, Grades 5 to 8, and Small and Large High Schools, Grade 9. 
Median Score for Each Grade 





Grades 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Small schools 


95 
115 


122 
144 


148 
174 


166 
196 


208 


Large schools 


221 








£0 40 60 80 100 ICO 140 160 160 too cio m 



ra 



One-feacherschoob four- teacher xhoob 

Figure 38.— Intelligence Examination, Delta 2, and Reading Examination, 
Sigma 3, Form B, combined scores. One- and four- teacher elementary schools, 
grades 5 to 8, and small and large high schools, grade 9. Median scores by 
grades 

Achievement Scores 
That the evident difference between the larger and smaller 
schools is not due to the nature of the intelligence and reading 

217 



examination will be seen in Table 86, which gives the scores for all 
the available tests in grades 5 and 8. The interpretation deriving 
from this table is clearly the same as that already given. The 
larger school unit is obviously the superior educational institution — 
superior by at least one-eighth of the amount of education which 
children obtain in the entire elementary school. 

Only one exception to this generalization holds — the scores in 
multiplication. These are the same for the two types of schools. 
For additional arithmetical problems, however, this does not prevail, 
the larger schools achieving superior results. 

Table 86. — One- and Four-Teacher Schools — Comparison of Median 
Scores in Fifth and Eighth Grades 



Ages 

Reading 

Spelling 

Addition 

Multiplication 

History information 
History thought. . . . 



Eighth grade 



One- 
teacher 



14.4 

66 

74 

16 

17 

31 

29 



Four- 
teacher 



14.3 

81 

84 

17 

17 

39 

37 



Fifth grade 



One- 
teacher 



12.0 

32 

12 

13 

13 



Four- 
teacher 



11.7 

42 

14 

14 

13 



Confirming Evidence 

The conclusion from the results of the survey is, in general, 
confirmed by the results of a state-wide testing program carried 
on by Dr. J. Cayce Morrison, of the New York State Department of 
Education, at the instance of the Department of Rural Education 
of the National Education Association. The tests used were all 
different from the ones used in the survey, and the method of giving 
and scoring much less standardized and controlled. The larger 
schools also differed from the ones included under that name in the 
survey inasmuch as they were all consolidated schools. 

By permission, the following is quoted from the report: "The 
difference in amount of achievement between the two types of 
schools considered in this investigation is relatively small. There 

218 



was, however, a distinct and fairly consistent superiority on each of 
the several tests of the consolidated group over the one-room group. 
When compared with the amount of gain that should be made 
from grade to grade, the excess of the consolidated group over the 
one-room group was most noticeable in language and spelling and 
least noticeable in arithmetic." 



Primary Grades 

That the distinction between the two types of schools is not an 

incident of the upper grade curriculum and the lack of teaching 

efficiency at this point in the course is evident from the scores made 

by the lower grades in silent reading. The scores in the Sigma 1 

Table 87. — Reading Examination: Sigma 1. One-Teacher and Four- or 
More-Teacher Schools. Percent of Pupils Making Standard Norm 
in Grades 1, 2, 3, and 4 





1 


2 


3 


4 


Average 


One- teacher 


14 

25 
20 


19 

27 
23 


19 
33 
27 


13 
31 
23 


14 


Four-teacher 


29 


All 


23 







Table 88. — Reading Examination: Sigma 1. Median Scores of Pupils in 
One- and Four-Teacher Schools by Ages 





Ages in years 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


One-teacher 


0.0 
1.6 


2.3 

3 

6 


5.1 
8.6 
10 


11.1 

17 

19 


22 
28 
27 


24 
28 
33 


26 


Four-teacher 


28 


Standard age norms 


43 



test show exactly the same type of superiority for the larger schools. 
Table 88 gives the median scores for pupils of ages 5 to 11 for the 
one- and four-teacher schools. At no age are the pupils in the one- 
teacher schools equaling the achievements in the larger schools. 
This fact is confirmed by Table 87, which shows the percent of pupils 
in each grade who attain the standard for the test. Nowhere do 50 

219 



percent of these pupils achieve the standard score, but in every grade 
the percentage for the larger schools is practically double that for 
the smaller schools. 

When such deficiency of achievement exists thus early in the 
elementary school it is small wonder that the upper grades show 
the discrepancies that they do. 

High Schools 
The comparative figures for large and small high schools do not 
mean the same type of thing as the comparison of large and small 
elementary schools. Many of the small high schools are connected 
with elementary schools of three and four rooms. Nor is the dif- 
ference so obvious. In the Miller and Delta 2 examinations (see 
Tables 89-91), neither group of schools has any clear advantage. 



Table 89. — Miller Mental Ability Test : Small and Large High Schools. 
Grades 9-12. Median Scores and Median Ages by Grades 




Grades 




9 


10 


11 


12 




Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Small high schools. 


65 




78 




80 




88 




Large high schools . 


67 


15.4 


74 


16 


80 


17.2 


86 


18.1 






15.2 




16.3 




17.1 




17.9 



Table 90. — Miller Mental Ability Test: Small and Large High Schools. 
Grades 9-12. Median Scores by Ages 



Small high schools . 
Large high schools 



12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 



65 

68 



72 
74 



Ages in years 



74 
74 



73 
73 



74 
74 



74 

75 



70 
74 



76 



Table 91. — Intelligence Examination: Delta 2. Median Scores and 
Ages by Grades of Pupils in Small and Large High Schools 





Grades 


Schools 


9 


10 


11 


12 




Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Less than four-teacher . . 


122 




130 




136 




137 




Four-teacher 


125 


15.4 


135 


15.9 


136 


17.3 


141 


18 






15.1 




16.3 




17.1 




17.9 



The larger schools have a slight advantage in reading, as shown in 
Table 92. 

Table 92. — Reading Examination, Sigma 3, Form B. Small and Large 
High Schools. Median Scores and Median Ages for Grades 9 to 12 





Grades 


Schools 


9 


10 


11 


12 




Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Score 


Age 


Small schools 


90 




104.5 




107.1 




111.7 




Large schools 


94.6 


15.4 


103 


15.9 


111.5 


17.1 


118 


17.9 






15.1 




16.3 




17.2 




17.8 



Evidence From Other States 
The superiority of the larger school unit thus apparent in the 
results of the New York tests is supported by results found else- 
where. The same differences appeared in the Virginia, North 
Carolina and Kentucky surveys, and in fact wherever the two types 



of schools have been measured by the same tests. The constancy 
of this difference is such as to identify these smaller schools with 
inferior achievement and to raise in the mind of every patron of the 
one-room schools the desire for an improvement of school conditions- 

Causes of Superiority of Larger Schools 
Mere size of the school is hardly to be credited with this difference 
in scores. One inference which is easy to make from the test 
results is that the pupils attending the smaller schools are less 
intelligent than those attending the larger schools. The results 
of the intelligence tests would seem to indicate this, and it may be 
that there are a larger number of intelligent children in the villages 
and towns. The evidences on this point, however, are not con- 
clusive, since there is good reason to believe that superior school 
training will enable a child to increase his score by a mere increase 
of reading efficiency without any alteration of native capacity. 
Much remains to be done in perfecting the discriminative quality 
of tests before they will give conclusive results on this point. 

Even were this difference in intelligence a demonstrable fact, the 
necessity for securing a good educational product in these schools 
would still remain. The desirable standard of school achievement 
is not determined by the general level of native intelligence of a 
community but by the complex conditions of modern social life. 
The situations which a man must face in this modern world are not 
rendered any less difficult of solution by the fact that he is less 
intelligent than his neighbor. If he is so handicapped, the school 
which trains him to play his part in the world must be even more 
efficient than were he of higher native ability. The standards of 
school achievement are, therefore, set by the demands of life and 
if it should in the end prove true that the pupils in rural communi- 
ties were handicapped by lower native ability, then the necessity 
for superior schools would be even greater than otherwise. 

That superior educational advantages easy of identification 
accompany the larger school unit there can be no doubt. Better 
buildings, better equipment, better teachers, better classification of 
pupils, better school instruction, are all made possible by the union 
of interests, the increase of school revenue, the better school admin- 



istration and supervision, consequent upon increase in the size of the 
school. 

Let us consider, for example, one factor which all will admit is 
important in determining the product of any school, namely, the 
training of the teacher. A careful record was made in the case of 
every school tested of the amount and kind of training of every 
teacher whose pupils were examined. A study of these records 
shows that in the larger schools the median training of elementary 
teachers is two years beyond a four-year high school course, and 
that 44 percent of these teachers are graduates of a two-year normal 
course. On the other hand, only 9 percent of the teachers in one- 
room schools have two years' normal training and the median 
training of these teachers is four years of high school work plus 
summer courses of six weeks or more in normal schools. 

Morrison's study already referred to shows the same advantage ac- 
cruing to the larger schools in the way of better trained teachers. His 
report shows that only 24 percent of the teachers in his one-teacher 
schools had training equivalent to two years above high school 
graduation, whereas in the larger schools 65 percent of the teachers 
had this much training. One may be inclined in the light of this 
information to attribute the difference in results from the two types 
of schools to this difference in the training of the teachers. Even 
though this admission were made, the handicap of the one-teacher 
schools would still remain, since under prevailing conditions they 
seem unable to attract the better trained teachers. 

Whatever the detailed cause may be, however, the fact remains 
that the one-teacher school is a less productive educational institu- 
tion than is the larger school unit, and the pupils who attend the 
smaller schools are being handicapped for life by this fact. If the 
state of New York is to secure to the pupils of these more isolated 
regions an educational opportunity fairly equivalent to that now 
available to the children who attend the larger schools, it must 
change and improve these conditions. It is probable that the most 
effective means for such improvements is consolidation of school 
districts wherever that is possible. Where such enlarging of the 
school district is not feasible, heroic efforts should be made to bring 
to these smaller schools the necessary conditions for improved 
work at whatever cost. 

223 



SURVEY OF NEW YORK STATE 
RURAL SCHOOLS 

The survey was organized with the following sections 
and directors: 

Administration and Supervision. C. H. Judd. 

School Support. Harlan Updegraff. 

Teachers and Courses of Study. W. C. Bagley. 

School Buildings. J. E. Butterworth. 

Measuring the Work of the Schools. M. E. Haggerty. 

Community Relations. Mabel Carney. 

The results of the studies conducted by these directors 
and their associates have been embodied in a series of 
reports. The approximate dates at which these will be 
available for distribution are: 



Volume I. 
Volume II. 



Volume III. 
Volume IV. 



Volume V. 
Volume VI. 
Volume VII. 



Volume VIII. 



Rural School Survey of New York State. 

(Preliminary Report) May, 1922. 
Administration and Supervision, October, 1922. 

The District System. Shelby. 

The Supervisory District. Brooks. 

The Community Unit. Works. 

Principles of Administration. Bobbitt. 

The State System of Examinations. Kruse. 

Health Education. Peterson. 

The State Schools of Agriculture. Holton. 

Junior Extension. Holton. 

Summary and Recommendations. Judd. 
School Support. Updegraff. August, 1922. 
Teachers and Teacher Preparation. Bagley. 
September, 1922. 

Elementary School Curriculum. Brim. 

Community Relations. Carney. 
School Buildings. Butterworth. June, 1922. 
The Educational Product. Haggerty. July, 1922. 
The Rural High Schools. Ferriss. August, 1922. 
(The administrative features of the high school 

were studied in cooperation with Dr. Judd, while 

teachers and curricula were developed under the 

general direction of Dr. Bagley.) 
Vocational Education. Eaton. July, 1922. 
(Prepared under the direction of Dr. Bagley.) 



These volumes may be obtained at seventy-five cents each, post- 
paid, except Volume II, on Administration and Supervision, which 
will be one dollar. Only a limited edition will be printed and those 
wishing to make certain of securing copies may place their orders at 
any time. 

Joint Committee on Rural Schools, 
Ithaca, N. Y. 



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